The DOI matches its Crossref record; 148 of the 152 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 15 of the 201 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Dissociation and memory fragmentation in post-traumatic stress disorder: An evaluation of the dissociative encoding hypothesis
Open accessAbstract
Several prominent theories of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) posit that peritraumatic dissociation results in insufficient encoding of the trauma memory and that persistent dissociation prevents memory elaboration, resulting in memory fragmentation and PTSD. In this review we summarise the empirical literature on peritraumatic and trait dissociation and trauma narrative fragmentation as measured by meta-memory and rater/objective coding. Across 16 studies to date, the association between dissociation and fragmentation was most prominent when examining peritraumatic dissociation and patient's own ratings of memory fragmentation. This relationship did not hold when examining trait dissociation or rater-coded or computer-generated measures of fragmentation. Thus initial evidence points more towards a strong self-reported association between constructs that is not supported on more objective fragmentation coding. Measurement overlap, construct ambiguity, and exclusion of potential confounds may underlie lack of a strong association between dissociation and objective-rated fragmentation.
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Claims the paper makes
81 No full text of the sources · 43 Own interpretation · 19 Not checked yet · 17 No basis given · 9 Sources not found · 8 Partly supported · 5 Own result · 3 Supported so far · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“although acute stress disorder (ASD), a disorder characterized by dissociative symptoms during or immediately following a traumatic event, is associated with PTSD (e.g., Creamer, O'Donnell, & Pattison, 2004; Harvey & Bryant, 2000; Murray et al., 2002)”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Conceptual and Measurement Issues
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Creamer, O'Donnell, & Pattison, 2004 source
The Abstract reports that ASD symptom clusters contributed to predicting subsequent PTSD severity in severely injured trauma survivors. The Introduction describes dissociative symptoms as a core feature of ASD. The paper cautions that ASD was a poor screening test in this population, but that does not contradict the stated association. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harvey & Bryant, 2000 source
- Supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 source
The Clinical outcome section reports that 77% of out-patients who met ASD criteria during the four weeks after an accident met PTSD criteria at six months. This supports the stated association; the paper also notes that the timing of ASD assessment matters. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Growing evidence suggests a tendency to dissociate (trait) and continued dissociation in response to reminders (persistent) may be more predictive of PTSD than peritraumatic dissociation (Briere et al., 2005; McFarlane, 1997; Murray et al., 2002; Pansetis & Bryant, 2003).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Conceptual and Measurement Issues
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Briere et al., 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McFarlane, 1997 source
- Partly supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Dissociation as a predictor of PTSD” (page not provided), the paper says persistent dissociation was a stronger predictor of chronic PTSD than dissociation during the accident. It does not support the same comparison for trait dissociation: the outpatient study found that dissociation during the accident predicted PTSD symptoms over and above a pre-accident tendency to dissociate. (LLM, conf=0.89)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Consistent with the findings of Halligan et al. (2003), individuals in the outpatient sample who reported higher peritraumatic dissociation on the SDQ also reported moderately higher single item meta-memory fragmentation (“Are your memories of the accident in any way unclear or jumbled?”) immediately after trauma.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 source
The Other cognitive predictors section reports a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.37) between self-reported memory fragmentation and initial dissociation in out-patients. The Memory fragmentation section gives the quoted single-item question; the paper identifies the SDQ as its measure of dissociation during the accident. In the Out-patient sample section, it says questionnaires were sent within 48 hours and most were returned within the first week. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Taken together results of Halligan et al. (2003), Murray et al. (2002), and Hardy et al. (2009) generally suggest that, in Criterion A trauma-exposed samples, individuals with higher peritraumatic dissociation consistently show higher meta-memory ratings of fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Halligan et al., 2003 source
- Partly supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Other cognitive predictors” (page not supplied), self-reported memory fragmentation correlated positively with initial dissociation among out-patients (r = 0.37, P < 0.001). The passage does not report the same association for the in-patient sample, so this paper supports the relationship in one road-accident sample but not the claim that it appeared consistently across samples. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hardy et al., 2009 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Meta-memory fragmentation assessed soon after trauma modestly predicted PTSD at four weeks and six months following trauma in both samples.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Other cognitive predictors section reports that memory fragmentation tended to have a positive relationship with PTSD severity. Its Table 2 does not show consistent prediction at both follow-ups in both samples: initial self-reported fragmentation was not significantly associated with six-month PTSD in out-patients or with either follow-up in in-patients, although expert-rated fragmentation in in-patients showed stronger associations. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Interestingly, their global rating of narrative fragmentation at initial assessment was a stronger predictor of PTSD than coded fragmentation at both one and six months post trauma, at a moderate level.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Table 2 (Other cognitive predictors; page not specified) shows that the initial expert rating of narrative fragmentation correlated with PTSD severity at four weeks (0.41) and six months (0.58), more strongly than patients’ self-reports. The paper does not compare the global rating with coded narrative fragmentation; its comparison is with self-reported fragmentation. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“However, trait dissociation, assessed by the DES, was not significantly correlated with self-reported memory loss, suggesting that severity of trait dissociation was not strongly associated with perceived memory quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites van der Hart et al., 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Dissociation section (p. 5) reports that DES scores were not significantly correlated with the degree of forgetting the target traumatic event. That supports the stated non-correlation, but the paper’s result is narrower than self-reported memory loss or perceived memory quality generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Dissociation may be more of a consequence than a cause, related to high levels of arousal during trauma (Krystal, Woods, Hill, & Charney, 1991; Marmar et al., 1997).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites Krystal, Woods, Hill, & Charney, 1991 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Symptoms of Self-Defined Panic Attacks section records feelings of unreality during panic attacks, but does not discuss dissociation as a consequence rather than a cause of trauma-related arousal. The Discussion addresses similarities among panic-attack subtypes, not that proposed relationship. Searches for dissociation, trauma, and arousal found no passage addressing the claim; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not matchedcites Marmar et al., 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Seven studies have investigated peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation (Buck, Kindt, & van den Hout, 2005b; Engelhard, van den Hout, Kindt, Arntz, & Schouten, 2003; Halligan et al., 2003; Hardy, Young, & Holmes, 2009; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt, van den Hout, & Buck, 2005; Murray et al., 2002).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Buck, Kindt, & van den Hout, 2005b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Engelhard, van den Hout, Kindt, Arntz, & Schouten, 2003 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Halligan et al., 2003 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Indeed, some prospective studies suggest that peritraumatic dissociation predicts PTSD over time (e.g., Birmes et al., 2003; Ehlers, Mayou, & Bryant, 1998; Holen, 1991; Marmar et al., 1999; Murray, Ehlers, & Mayou, 2002; Schafer, Barkmann, Riedesser, & Schulte-Markwort, 2004; Shalev & Freedman, 2005; Ursano et al., 1999); however, others do not”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Conceptual and Measurement Issues
What the sources say
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 59
- Probably not a substantial claim. 34
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Fragmentation of the trauma memory is a phenomenon that is often clinically observed, and continues to be an important area of focus for those treating PTSD (e.g., Becker, Zayfert, & Anderson, 2004, van der Kolk et al., 2005).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Focus of the Present Paper: Dissociation and Memory Processing
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Becker, Zayfert, & Anderson, 2004 source
- Could not verifycites van der Kolk et al., 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Treatment Implications section discusses dissociation and affect regulation as treatment concerns before trauma exposure, but does not identify fragmented trauma memory as a clinical observation or treatment focus. Searches for “fragmentation of the trauma memory” and “fragmented traumatic memories treatment PTSD” found no passage addressing that specific claim. (LLM, conf=0.73)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“This investigation suggests that although the majority of individuals with DID reported a lack of narrative memory, high trait dissociation was not specifically related to fragmented meta-memory and memory disturbance may not be unique to traumatic events, at least in a severe clinical sample.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites van der Hart et al., 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Fragmentary Recall of Memories (p. 10) reports that only 45.6% of the DID participants developed a complete narrative memory of trauma. The Discussion (p. 9) and Conclusion (p. 13) report fragmented recall of emotionally significant non-traumatic events as well. The Dissociation section (p. 5) finds no significant correlation between dissociation scores and the degree of forgetting the traumatic event, but does not establish the claimed lack of a specific relationship with fragmented meta-memory. (LLM, conf=0.86)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In the studies reviewed here, three measures were used for peritraumatic dissociation: the PDEQ (Marmar et al., 1997), the State Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ; Murray et al., 2002), and the Acute Stress Disorder Inventory (ASDI; Bryant, Harvey, Dang, & Sackville, 1998).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Marmar et al., 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 source
The citation to Murray et al. (2002) is attached specifically to the State Dissociation Questionnaire, not to the claim about all three measures. In “Symptoms of PTSD,” the paper says it used the SDQ to assess dissociation during the accident, supporting its identification as a measure of peritraumatic dissociation. No page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bryant, Harvey, Dang, & Sackville, 1998 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Memories change over time (e.g., Hepp et al., 2006; Southwick et al., 1997; Zoellner et al., 2001) and time since the trauma may degrade memory traces (e.g., McNally, 2005), resulting in recounting that appears fragmented.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Hepp et al., 2006 source
The Results section (‘Inconsistent reports of PTE’) shows that participants reported potentially traumatic events differently in 1993 and 1999, supporting the clause for which Hepp et al. is cited: memories change over time. The later suggestion about degraded memory traces is cited to McNally, not Hepp; this verdict does not attribute that mechanism or fragmented recounting to Hepp. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Southwick et al., 1997 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zoellner et al., 2001 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“It is interesting to note that only two studies in this review looked specifically at childhood abuse (Peace et al., 2008; van der Hart et al., 2005) and both failed to find consistent significant relationships between trait dissociation and memory fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peace et al., 2008 source
- Partly supportedcites van der Hart et al., 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (p. 2) says the study examined traumatic and non-traumatic memories in women with dissociative identity disorder, and the paper reports that all participants had histories of severe childhood abuse (p. 1). The Dissociation results (p. 5) found no significant relationship between dissociation scores and the degree of forgetting a traumatic event, but forgetting is not the same as memory fragmentation; the cited paper does not report the claimed test of trait dissociation against fragmentation. The assertion that there were only two such studies in the citing review cannot be established from this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the reconstructive, changing nature of memory (e.g., Schacter, 1996) challenges the notion that fragmentation is unique to trauma, as it is expected that all memories will be recounted with varying detail and coherence over time (McNally, 2005).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schacter, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites McNally, 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Memory Does Not Operate Like a Videotape Recorder” (page unavailable), McNally says all recollection is reconstructive and no memory is immune to change over time. “Confusion About Repetition, Emotional Arousal, and Memory” adds that details of similar events may blur. The paper does not establish that all memories will be recounted with varying coherence over time. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Across studies, individuals reporting higher peritraumatic dissociation reported higher meta-memory fragmentation.”
- Also stated in: § Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation · boosted
“Thus, the vast majority of studies show a link between peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation, including three studies that used Criterion A samples and three analogue studies, consistently showing a positive moderate association.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation · boosted
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Similar to the above analogue studies (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005), this study is limited by the same single-item measure and again suggests that when assessed with analogue designs that greater peritraumatic dissociation is related to greater meta-memory fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, 16 studies were included in this review.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature
plaincorrelational- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper may give no reason why it holds. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This relationship did not hold when examining trait dissociation or rater-coded or computer-generated measures of fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Overall, the mixed pattern of results for this study and the lack of reported findings make it difficult to draw strong conclusions; but, in general, the pattern of findings does not suggest a consistent relationship between meta-memory fragmentation and trait dissociation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peace et al., 2008 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, although reports of peritraumatic dissociation appear to be associated with perceptions of fragmentation, it was not consistently associated with rater or objectively-coded fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are aware of no studies that have examined the association between trait dissociation and objectively-coded fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Overall, higher peritraumatic dissociation was inconsistently associated with rater-coded or objective fragmentation (Buck et al., 2006b; Jones et al., 2007; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Zoellner et al., 2002), with only two studies out of seven finding consistent positive relationships (Halligan et al., 2003; Harvey & Bryant, 1999).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast to Rubin et al. (2004), this study suggests that a tendency to dissociate after a traumatic event is related to perceptions that the trauma memory lacks narrative structure, although this is based on a single-item qualitative assessment of narrative quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Thus, in analogue studies, peritraumatic dissociation was not significantly related to sequential memory performance (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003) or subjectively coded fragmentation (Buck et al., 2006b; Kindt et al., 2005).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although the authors suggest a possible link between peritraumatic dissociation and coded fragmentation, peritraumatic dissociation was not consistently related to coded fragmentation and the mixed pattern of results is inconclusive.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zoellner et al., 2002 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The SDQ, although used in several studies, lacks published reliability or validity information.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, to date, no studies have looked at trauma narratives in terms of their degree of integration into an individuals' overall autobiographical memory.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In regard to trait dissociation, the DES (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986) is commonly used in traumatized samples and was used in the large majority of studies in this review that included trait dissociation (8 out of 12).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bernstein & Putnam, 1986 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gray and Lombardo (2001) showed that findings of greater fragmentation for trauma narratives of individuals with PTSD disappeared when controlling for this using a vocabulary task, suggesting that fragmentation may be an artifact of lower verbal ability.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gray & Lombardo, 2001 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Peace and colleagues (2008) also looked at differences in memory quality for childhood and adult traumatic events and again found few consistent differences with the exception of less coherence and more repression association with childhood events.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peace et al., 2008 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, this is only one single investigation and they did not report on differences in dissociation for adult versus childhood trauma”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, the results of this review did not find consistent relationships between memory fragmentation and dissociation, with the exception of peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The majority of current studies exclude these potential influences.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It appears that dissociation during a traumatic event is more associated with increased meta-memory fragmentation in the trauma memory, suggesting a link between dissociative encoding and perception of memory quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this emerging literature, the associations between peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation were the most consistent; those who reported dissociating during the trauma also reported perceiving their traumatic memories as more fragmented.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, research exploring persistent dissociation is currently lacking in the literature and is needed to further our understanding of memory fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“By hindering processing, persistent dissociation, similar to other types of cognitive and behavioral avoidance (Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996; Panasetis & Bryant, 2003; Wagner & Linehan, 1998) may contribute to both memory fragmentation and PTSD development.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Conceptual and Measurement Issues
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Several reviews have critically examined the relationship between memory fragmentation and PTSD (see O'Kearney & Perrott, 2006; Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Focus of the Present Paper: Dissociation and Memory Processing
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Meta-memory fragmentation at one-month post loss mediated the relationship between peritraumatic dissociation and PTSD severity at one month, but not four months, post pregnancy loss.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Engelhard et al., 2003 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Taken together, higher peritraumatic dissociation was moderately associated with meta-memory disorganization; however, these results cast doubt on disorganization as a mechanism of PTSD development.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Halligan et al., 2003 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, initial evidence points more toward a strong self-reported association between constructs that is not supported on more objective fragmentation coding.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Studies with adolescents/children were excluded because memory processes, especially narrative memories, may be different in children (e.g., Kenardy et al., 2007; Pynoos, Steinberg, & Aronson, 1997), warranting a separate analysis.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“However, recollections of peritraumatic reactions are often inconsistent over time and are potentially biased by current symptoms (Harvey & Bryant, 2000; Southwick, Morgan, Nicolaou, & Charney, 1997; Zoellner, Sacks, & Foa, 2001).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Conceptual and Measurement Issues
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, this issue of the relationship between dissociation, trauma, and information processing remains contentious.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Focus of the Present Paper: Dissociation and Memory Processing
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Thus, decreases in subjectively coded peritraumatic dissociation may be an artifact of the changes in coded narrative organization, and peritraumatic dissociation was not associated with fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Moulds & Bryant, 2005 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As discussed above, trait dissociation may be representative of persistent dissociation after a traumatic event, thus contributing to fragmented trauma memories.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these finding suggest that peritraumatic dissociation is related to individuals' perception of their memories but is not consistently related to how others' perceive and rate these trauma memories or other more objective coding of these memories as fragmented.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For the sexual traumatic experience, higher trait dissociation, as assessed by the DES, was significantly associated with more reported emotion and memory repression, and less reported memory quality, at a moderate to strong level.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peace et al., 2008 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Taken together, these findings question the association between peritraumatic dissociation and disorganization and in particular suggest that disorganization may be related more to PTSD than to dissociation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jones et al., 2007 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the prospective analyses, although disorganization at initial assessment predicted PTSD three months post-trauma, it did not predict over and above peritraumatic dissociation (i.e., ASD diagnosis).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jones et al., 2007 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Using both subjective and objective coding, narratives of individuals with high peritraumatic dissociation had more sensory components and lower reading ease than those low in peritraumatic dissociation; however, inconsistent with fragmentation, individuals with high peritraumatic dissociation recounted narratives with higher-grade levels and more negative emotions.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zoellner et al., 2002 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thus, it remains unclear if trait dissociation is related to either higher rater-defined narrative fragmentation or PTSD.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peace et al., 2008 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is inconsistent with meta-memory for snapshot quality, suggesting that peritraumatic dissociation predicts perception of memory quality, but not recounting or memory performance, after an analogue traumatic event.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“In the three analogue studies described earlier (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005), peritraumatic dissociation during film viewing was not significantly related to either performance on a sequential memory task (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005) or to rater-coded narrative recall using a one-item rating (Kindt et al., 2005).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A failure to conceptualize trait, state, and peritraumatic dissociation as distinct, yet related, constructs may further be complicating conclusions on dissociation and fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“A variety of measures exist for dissociation, and there is not a “gold-standard” (Bryant, 2007; Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, dissociation is reported after both aversive and pleasant events (Candel & Merckelbach, 2004), casting doubt on dissociation as unique to trauma.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Candel & Merckelbach, 2004 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To elaborate, dissociation during a trauma may help protect against encoding threatening, aversive memories (e.g., Horowitz, 1986) and may reduce distress and physiological arousal, although support for this hypothesis is inconsistent (Bryant, Harvey, Guthrie, & Moulds, 2000; Fikretoglu et al., 2006; Griffin, Resick, & Mechanic, 1997; Kaufman et al., 2002; Nixon & Bryant, 2005).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Emotional numbing is often considered a key symptom of dissociation (e.g., Bryant, 2007; Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Dissociation is a ubiquitous and normative phenomenon, occurring in well-adjusted, healthy individuals as well as trauma survivors (e.g., Bernstein & Putnam, 1986; Kihlstrom et al., 1994; Bryant, 2007).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The problem with this is that an inability to precisely measure fragmentation results in it being inadequately defined; a “know it when you see it” phenomenon.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As mentioned above, perhaps fragmentation is most easily detected with global impressions.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Anecdotally, fragmentation is commonly reported in clinical observations (van der Kolk & van der Hart, 1989), however if fragmentation is indeed a ubiquitous experience after trauma, it is surprising that we would be able to not capture it when objectively assessing memory quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites van der Kolk & van der Hart, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Trait dissociation implies persistent post-trauma dissociation in that a higher general tendency to dissociate may indicate an increased likelihood to dissociate following a traumatic event and may contribute to higher memory fragmentation (e.g., Bryant, 2007; Ehlers & Clark, 2000).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Finally, the ASDI is a measure of ASD and may be confounding peritraumatic and continued dissociation (Bryant, 2007).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bryant, 2007 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“omitting key constructs that are positively associated with dissociation and PTSD (Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996; Foa & Riggs, 1993; Foa, Riggs, & Gershuny, 1995).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996 source
- Not matchedcites Foa & Riggs, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Foa, Riggs, & Gershuny, 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that either persistent dissociation is not meaningfully related to increased fragmentation or that trait dissociation measures are not capturing this reminder-cued dissociation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Specifically, trait dissociation may be a vulnerability factor for peritraumatic dissociation (Kihlstrom et al., 1994), potentially mediating the relationship between peritraumatic dissociation and fragmentation”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kihlstrom et al., 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As discussed, questions from the PDEQ overlap with fragmentation, potentially confusing constructs.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“As noted by Brewin (2007), assessment of central versus peripheral details in traumatic events, which are often complex and prolonged, is challenging.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brewin, 2007 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“If, as suggested by some fragmentation-focused theories (e.g., Brewin, 2001; van der Kolk,1987), trauma memories are represented differently than other types of memories due to dissociative encoding then we might expect more robust findings regarding dissociation and fragmentation across measures and constructs.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brewin, 2001 source
- Not matchedcites van der Kolk, 1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“For example, Ehlers and Clark's (2000) cognitive processing model posits processes, such as avoidance and interpretations of the event, to account for unelaborated trauma memories and PTSD, and may provide a more parsimonious view of post-trauma psychological processes, and shift emphasis to beliefs and perceptions.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ehlers & Clark, 2000 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that the focus should potentially be on beliefs about memory instead of actual memory quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, it may not be necessary to posit dissociation as explanatory for fragmentation, as some degree of fragmentation is an expected, normal phenomenon.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In cases where dissociation during recall (state) decreases distress, we might expect lower fragmentation; whereas, in cases where dissociation does not decrease distress, it may result in either higher meta-memory fragmentation or narratives that look fragmented when recalled (e.g., contains uhs, ums, confusion), but may not actually be fragmented.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, similar to distress, time, and cognitive ability, the use of data-driven processing strategies may help account for both higher dissociation and fragmentation, suggesting that these important variables need to be carefully addressed in future studies.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These factors, which stress both encoding during an event and processing following an event, have been posited to explain the existence of both intrusions and fragmented memory in PTSD (Ehlers et al., 2004).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ehlers et al., 2004 source
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Indeed, it has been suggested that fragmentation may be an epiphenomenon resulting from increased distress during recall (Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004)”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Furthermore, self-report measures often assess dissociation that occurred months or years earlier, and retrospective reporting of trauma reactions are often inaccurate (e.g., Bryant, 2007).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bryant, 2007 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, current functioning or the mere passage of time may be a more parsimonious explanation for higher fragmentation and dissociation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Distress or arousal during memory encoding has been posited to affect memory fragmentation (e.g., Shobe & Kihlstrom, 1997).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Shobe & Kihlstrom, 1997 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“It is widely accepted that, during emotional events, memory for central details is enhanced though memory for peripheral details is impaired (see Christianson, 1992).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Christianson, 1992 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, benzodiazapines, a class of medications often used by individuals with PTSD, inhibit memory encoding when taken during an event but also paradoxically facilitate memory of traumatic events when taken during recall (e.g., Krystal, Bremner, Southwick, & Charney, 1998), suggesting that they could either increase or decrease fragmentation depending on context of use.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Krystal, Bremner, Southwick, & Charney, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This could explain conflicting findings between meta-memory and objective coding measures, with distress or arousal associated with state dissociation more directly impacting narrative recounting than self-reports of memory quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Defining what aspects of an event are expected to be recalled clearly versus those that will be more difficult to retrieve is idiographic.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“As discussed, dissociation and memory fragmentation figure prominently into several current theories of PTSD (e.g., Brewin, 2001; Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Foa, 1997; van der Kolk, 1987).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If dissociation and fragmentation are indirectly associated through related factors, then it may be these third variables that explain observed relationships.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Dissociation is often assessed retrospectively, and several factors can affect accuracy including forgetting, attribution, and malingering (Candel & Merckelbach, 2004).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Candel & Merckelbach, 2004 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The finding that individuals who recall feeling disconnected during the traumatic experience also tend to recall the memory as more fragmented suggests that for some trauma survivors peritraumatic emotional reactions, such as dissociation, may function as avoidance and lead to a perception that the memory is unclear and difficult to recall.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is problematic as it may be resulting in an incomplete picture of theorized mechanisms.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, dissociation may serve the individual as an emotion regulation strategy that helps them avoid trauma-related thoughts and emotions as opposed to a process that contributes specifically to the quality of the trauma memory.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings have important implications for theories which posit that dissociation negatively impacts memory processing and thereby contributes to the development and maintenance of PTSD.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper relies on this without support.
Before this review, no thorough review had examined the empirical evidence linking dissociation, memory processing, and PTSD.
“However, a thorough review of the empirical evidence linking these constructs has yet to be conducted.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Fragmentation is pervasive across trauma types, including childhood trauma.
“However, we did include adult samples reporting childhood trauma because fragmentation is hypothesized to be pervasive, and excluding based on trauma type would restrict conclusions.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“Only two studies included both meta-memory and coded fragmentation (Halligan et al., 2003; Murray et al., 2002), allowing for direct comparisons between types of fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“Similarly, Buck et al. (2006b), also described above, found no significant relationship between peritraumatic dissociation and rater-coded fragmentation in individuals with spider phobia, using the same one-item rating as Kindt et al. (2005).”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“Other clinical samples produced either mixed findings (Jones et al., 2007; Zoellner et al., 2002) or findings actually in the opposite direction (Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Murray et al., 2002).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“However, they did not report results on peritraumatic dissociation and coded fragmentation, although both were assessed.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Overall, higher peritraumatic dissociation was inconsistently associated with rater-coded or objective fragmentation (Buck et al., 2006b; Jones et al., 2007; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Zoellner et al., 2002), with only two studies out of seven finding consistent positive relationships (Halligan et al., 2003; Harvey & Bryant, 1999).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
Reported 7 · recomputed 8
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“with only two studies out of seven finding consistent positive relationships (Halligan et al., 2003; Harvey & Bryant, 1999).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“Overall, higher peritraumatic dissociation was inconsistently associated with rater-coded or objective fragmentation (Buck et al., 2006b; Jones et al., 2007; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Zoellner et al., 2002)”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
“One-item assessments were more likely to show positive associations with dissociation (positive association: Buck et al., 2006b; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Engelhard et al., 2003; Halligan et al., 2003; Hardy et al., 2009; Murray et al., 2002; van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995; van der Hart et al., 2005)”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“However, trait dissociation, assessed by the DES, was not significantly correlated with self-reported memory loss, suggesting that severity of trait dissociation was not strongly associated with perceived memory quality.”
Citations
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“As discussed, dissociation and memory fragmentation figure prominently in several current theories of PTSD (e.g., Brewin, 2001; Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Foa, 1997; van der Kolk, 1987).”
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The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system
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“…memory recall (e.g., Schacter, 1996), that sensory-based encoding results in a perceptual memory trace that is involuntarily cued by perceptual stimuli (e.g., Roediger, 1990), and that elaboration of events in memory will prevent unintentional recall (e.g., Conway & Pleydell-Pearce, 2000).”
Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale
BERNSTEIN, E. M., & PUTNAM, F. W. (1986) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-198612000-00004 · Cited by 3,793 · cited 15×
“Rubin and colleagues (2004) examined post-trauma trait dissociation, using the Dissociative Experiences Questionnaire (DES; Bernstein & Putnam, 1986), and meta-memory fragmentation, using a multiitem scale (Autobiographical Memory Questionnaire, AMQ), in 50 veterans with combat-related PTSD.…”
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“…an overall conextual framework (van Der et al., 2005a; van Der and Nijenhuis, 001; van Der, 1986; Van der Kolk, 1997; Van der Kolk and Fisler, 995; Bedard-Gilligan and Zoellner, 2012), thereby contributing to oorer extinction of the conditioned fear memory of the trauma Rougemont-Bucking et al.,…”
Lynn, S. J., Lilienfeld, S. O., Merckelbach, H., Giesbrecht, T., McNally, R. J., Loftus, E. F., Bruck, M., Garry, M., & Malaktaris, A. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0035570 · Cited by 152
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“Two major reviews of the PTSD trauma narrative literature have concluded that inconsistent measurement and terminology impairs the ability to draw strong conclusions about ties between trauma, PTSD and indices of memory disruption (O’Kearney & Perrott, 2006; Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012).”
BackgroundFragmented Sleep, Fragmented Mind
der Kloet, D. V. H., Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., Giesbrecht, T., & Lynn, S. J. (2012) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691612437597 · Cited by 133
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“Given depressive symptoms are elevated in youth with chronic pain (Blaauw et al., 2014; Coenders et al., 2014), and predict pain persisting into adulthood (Horst et al., 2014), we posit that depression in youth may confer risk for PTSS and pain-related disability.”
BackgroundSleep loss increases dissociation and affects memory for emotional stimuli
der Kloet, D. V. H., Giesbrecht, T., & Merckelbach, H. L. G. J. (2014) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.11.002 · Cited by 96
Inserra, A. (2018) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.00330 · Cited by 91
“It has been suggested that this mechanisms might be relevant to PTSD via the phenomenon of “dissociative encoding”, the insufficient encoding of the trauma memory following peritraumatic dissociation which prevents future re-elaboration of the traumatic memory (Bedard-Gilligan and Zoellner, 2012).”
BackgroundReality versus fantasy: Reply to Lynn et al. (2014).
Dalenberg, C. J., Brand, B. L., Loewenstein, R. J., Gleaves, D. H., Dorahy, M. J., Cardeña, E., Frewen, P., Carlson, E. B., & Spiegel, D. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0036685 · Cited by 81
Armour, C., Elklit, A., Lauterbach, D., & Elhai, J. D. (2014) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.12.008 · Cited by 81
Narrative fragmentation in child sexual abuse: the role of age and post-traumatic stress disorder
Miragoli, S., Camisasca, E., & Di Blasio, P. (2017) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.028 · Cited by 46
“In literature, various definitions of trauma memory fragmentation exist (Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012), including increased sensory components (Hopper & van der Kolk, 2001), abnormal chronology (Byrne, Hyman, & Scott, 2001), and memory confusion (Foa, Molnar, & Cashman, 1995; Halligan, Michael,…”
BackgroundBurton, M. S., Feeny, N. C., Connell, A. M., & Zoellner, L. A. (2018) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000297 · Cited by 38
Self-citationHabermas, T. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139626767.014 · Cited by 30
Sherrill, A. M., Kurby, C. A., Lilly, M. M., & Magliano, J. P. (2018) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2018.1492619 · Cited by 22
Krüger, C., Bartel, P., & Fletcher, L. (2013) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2013.769480 · Cited by 23
“Bedard-Gilligan and Zoellner (2012) recommended distinguishing between trait dissociation, state dissociation, peritraumatic dissociation, and dissociation in response to traumatic reminders.”
Background(2017) · PubMed · Cited by 23
Peltonen, K., Kangaslampi, S., Saranpää, J., Qouta, S., & Punamäki, R. (2017) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1375828 · Cited by 23
“…and psychosocial mechanisms have been suggested to explain the association between PD and PTSD (Apfel et al., 2011; Schauer & Elbert, 2015), with disturbances in memory functioning providing one promising approach (Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012; Spiegel, Koopmen, Cardena, & Classen, 1996).”
BackgroundMethodLi, Y., Zhu, H., Ren, Z., Lui, S., Yuan, M., Gong, Q., Yuan, C., Gao, M., Qiu, C., & Zhang, W. (2020) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-020-2452-5 · Cited by 21
“According to general memory models [3, 16, 30–32], inadequate memory encoding and processing can affect visual sensory information in the visual-spatial template caused by trauma-related stimuli and result in flashbacks [33] and other symptoms [34].”
BackgroundSerrano-Ibáñez, E. R., Ruiz-Párraga, G. T., Gómez-Pérez, L., Ramírez-Maestre, C., Esteve, R., & López-Martínez, A. E. (2021) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2020.1869647 · Cited by 17
Huntjens, R. J. C., Dorahy, M. J., Read, D., Middleton, W., & van Minnen, A. (2022) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0000686 · Cited by 18
Koebach, A., & Robjant, K. (2021) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2021.1992962 · Cited by 15
“…impairs the verbal accessibility of its content (Brewin, 2011; Ehlers, Hackmann, & Michael, 2004; Foa, Molnar, & Cashman, 1995), especially when the victim dissociated during the traumatic experience (Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012; Peltonen, Kangaslampi, Saranpää, Qouta, & Punamäki, 2017).”
Sotgiu, I., & Rusconi, M. L. (2014) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2013.814619 · Cited by 16
“First, PTSD affects a significant part of people exposed to trauma, with estimated prevalence rates reaching up to 50% of the studied populations (e.g., Armenian et al., 2000; Yule et al., 2000).”
BackgroundParry, S. L., Lloyd, M., & Simpson, J. (2017) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2017.08.002 · Cited by 15
Matsumoto, N., & Kawaguchi, J. (2020) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2020.101569 · Cited by 15
Jeffery, R. (2023) · Cooperation and Conflict · doi:10.1177/00108367231184721 · Cited by 20
“…in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity or perception’ and this disruption is associated with ‘incomplete initial processing of the traumatic experience’ which, in turn, ‘disrupts both memory storage and retrieval’ (Bedard-Gilligan and Zoellner, 2012: 277).”
Taylor, A., Zajac, R., Takarangi, M. K. T., & Garry, M. (2021) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026211053312 · Cited by 21
“Furthermore, traumatic experiences are thought to promote dissociation, which results in gaps in people’s memories for trauma ( Janet, 1889/1973; for a review, see Dalenberg et al., 2012; but see also, Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012; Lynn et al., 2012).”
BackgroundSchmitt, S., Robjant, K., Elbert, T. R., Carleial, S., Hoeffler, A., Chibashimba, A., Hinkel, H., & Koebach, A. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0275421 · Cited by 13
“Survivors’ communication about their trauma is often inhibited, with manifold reasons including (a) the avoidance of being reminded of past horrors, which prevents the reappraisal of meaning [23], (b) an impaired verbal accessibility of the memory [24–26], especially if dissociative responding was part of the experien…”
BackgroundVirtual reality for law enforcement training: a demonstration and implication for dispatch priming
Potts, J., Hawken, A., Hillhouse, M. P., & Farabee, D. J. (2022) · Police Practice and Research · doi:10.1080/15614263.2022.2065991 · Cited by 11
“Also, given the centrality of officer accounts when documenting high-risk encounters, it would be informative to ask participants to describe the details of their VR-based encounter to assess memory recall when under duress (Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012).”
BackgroundRivi, V., Rigillo, G., Toscano, Y., Benatti, C., & Blom, J. M. C. (2023) · Children · doi:10.3390/children10071217 · Cited by 14
Experiences of therapeutic relationships on hospital wards, dissociation, and making connections
Parry, S. L., Lloyd, M., & Simpson, J. (2016) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2016.1241852 · Cited by 15
“Epistemological and empirical discussions highlight that autobiographical accounts are based upon perception rather than fact (Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012), which is highly relevant due to the recognised difficulties people experiencing detachment dissociation can have in terms of…”
BackgrounddeMello, R. A. F., Coimbra, B. M., Pedro, B. D. M., Benvenutti, I. M., Yeh, M. S. L., Mello, A. F., Mello, M. F., & Poyares, D. R. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221114151 · Cited by 15
“PTD is thought to influence the development and persistence of PTSD by preventing the initial processing of the traumatic event and disrupting elaboration during memory encoding (Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012).”
BackgroundDong, X., & Li, Y. (2014) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00014 · Cited by 12
“DISCUSSION Peritraumatic dissociation, a possible predictor of PTSD, has been questioned for the inconsistent results in different time points of assessment (Bedard-Gilligan and Zoellner, 2012).”
ResultBenzakour, L., Braillard, O., Mazzola, V., Gex, D., Nehme, M., Perone, S. A., Agoritsas, T., Kopp, G., Cereghetti, S., Bondolfi, G., et al. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.05.031 · Cited by 13
Dissociation and false memory: the moderating role of trauma and cognitive ability
Sajjadi, S. F., Sellbom, M., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (2021) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2021.1963778 · Cited by 13
Integrating and fragmenting memories under stress and alcohol
Loetscher, K. B., & Goldfarb, E. V. (2024) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2024.100615 · Cited by 7
McKinnon, A., Brewer, N., Cameron, K., & Nixon, R. D. V. (2017) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2017.04.004 · Cited by 11
Fragmented sleep - fragmented mind : the role of sleep in dissociative symptoms
der Kloet, D. V. H. (2013) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20131115dk · Cited by 9
Rougemont-Bücking, A., Guenot, F., Salamin, V., Gothuey, I., Duffour, C., King-Olivier, J., Girard, V., & Naudin, J. (2024) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2024.100431 · Cited by 8
Disclosure among Youth Stopped by the Police: Repercussions for Mental Health
Turney, K., Geller, A., & Cowan, S. (2022) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2022.100089 · Cited by 6
Strachan, L. P., Paulik, G., & McEvoy, P. M. (2024) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.70024 · Cited by 12
Cavicchioli, M., Santoni, A., Chiappetta, F., Deodato, M., Dona, G. D., Scalabrini, A., Galli, F., & Ronconi, L. (2024) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2024.103731 · Cited by 7
Emotional conflict adaptation predicts intrusive memories
Grueschow, M., Jelezarova, I., Westphal, M., Ehlert, U., & Kleim, B. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0225573 · Cited by 8
“It has previously been reported that reduced encoding leads to fragmented memories, which in turn has been shown to result in higher numbers of intrusions [40].”
BackgroundSosa, J. P., Srikanchana, R. A., Walker, M. S., Stamper, A., King, J. L., Ollinger, J. M., Bonavia, G. H., Workman, C. I., Darda, K. M., Chatterjee, A. K., et al. (2023) · The Arts in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.aip.2023.102050 · Cited by 8
Sherrill, A. M., & Magliano, J. P. (2017) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.01.004 · Cited by 8
La mémoire traumatique : postulats historiques et débats contemporains
Charretier, L., Dayan, J., Eustache, F., & Quinette, P. (2020) · Bulletin de l Académie Nationale de Médecine · doi:10.1016/j.banm.2020.12.020 · Cited by 11
Opsvik, Y. Ø., Holbæk, I., Arefjord, K., & Hjeltnes, A. (2021) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2021.100250 · Cited by 6
The Human Interface of Biomedical Informatics
Klatt, E. C. (2018) · Journal of Pathology Informatics · doi:10.4103/jpi.jpi_39_18 · Cited by 7
Zoellner, L. A., Sheikh, I. S., Walker, R. W., Rosencrans, P., Garcia, N. M., Marks, E. H., Ojalehto, H. J., & Bedard-Gilligan, M. A. (2019) · Handbook of Sexual Assault and Sexual Assault Prevention · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-23645-8_20 · Cited by 6
Self-citationWhite matter correlates of dissociation in a diverse sample of trauma-exposed women
Kondas, A., McDermott, T. J., Ahluwalia, V., Haller, O. C., Karkare, M. C., Guelfo, A., Daube, A., Bradley, B., Powers, A. D., Stevens, J. S., et al. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2024.116231 · Cited by 4
Time-dependent neural arbitration between cue associative and episodic fear memories
Cortese, A., Ohata, R., Alemany-González, M., Kitagawa, N., Imamizu, H., & Koizumi, A. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-52733-4 · Cited by 5
“One notable de fi cit is the disruption of sequential memory encoding which cue happened in what order 7,8 (but for debate, see refs.”
Strachan, L. P., Paulik, G., & McEvoy, P. M. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/64fm8 · Cited by 4
State-dependent memory mechanisms insights from neural circuits and clinical implications
Liu, Y., Zhang, G., Qi, R., Ma, J., & Xu, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2025.1629796 · Cited by 3
Esposito, R., Schettino, E. M., Buonincontri, V., Vitale, C., Santangelo, G., & Maggi, G. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15070850 · Cited by 3
“In contrast, PTSD has also been associated with memory impairments, such as memory fragmentation due to inadequate encoding (Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012) and partial amnesia as a defense mechanism that protects the individual by avoiding the traumatic experience (Berntsen & Rubin, 2014; Clark…”
Cue-Centered Therapy for Youth Experiencing Posttraumatic Symptoms
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.001.0001 · Cited by 3
Dissociation and traumatic memory in adolescents with physical disabilities
Andolo-Kathungu, E., Meresia, S. A., & Christine, W. (2022) · International Journal of Special Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.18844/jeset.v8i1.7986 · Cited by 3
“These findings are similar to the study that reported that insufficient encoding of trauma memory leads to fragmentation of memory (Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellnern, 2012) causing one not to remember the whole event.”
ResultTowards reconnecting: creative formulation and understanding dissociation
Parry, S. L., & Lloyd, M. (2017) · Mental Health Review Journal · doi:10.1108/mhrj-11-2015-0033 · Cited by 4
“…within the area of dissociation following psychological trauma, epistemological and empirical studies suggest autobiographical narratives are based upon perception rather than fact (Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012), which is why an epistemological stance of critical realism was adopted.”
Maldonado, J. R., & Spiegel, D. (2019) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615371501.lr16 · Cited by 3
Charretier, L., Eustache, F., Laisney, M., Dayan, J., Fraisse, F., Sayette, V. D. L., Gagnepain, P., Chakli, A., Klein-Peschanski, C., Peschanski, D., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1390470 · Cited by 5
Dale, K. Y., Larsen, B. K., Hean, S. C. P. D., et al. (2025) · European Journal of Probation · doi:10.1177/20662203251327514 · Cited by 2
“Trauma research suggests that partial disclosures or inconsistencies in client narratives are not necessarily acts of intentional deception but may result from memory fragmentation (Brewin, 2014) or avoidance strategies (Bedard-Gilligan and Zoellner, 2012), both serving as coping mechanisms.”
Rombold, F., Otte, C., Renneberg, B., Hellmann‐Regen, J., Bruch, L., Wingenfeld, K., & Roepke, S. (2018) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2018.10.010 · Cited by 3
“The DissociationTension-Scale acute (DSS-acute) (Stiglmayr, Braakmann, Haaf, Stieglitz, & Bohus, 2003) is a self-rating instrument constructed for the assessment of present-time dissociative features and was applied since dissociation during trauma has been associated with disorganized and disintegrated trauma recall…”
Yong, W. N. (2022) · Journal of Languages Linguistics and Literary Studies · doi:10.57040/jllls.v2i1.136 · Cited by 2
Mental Health Considerations After Sexual Assault
Klein, L. R., & Ho, J. D. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-52520-0_29 · Cited by 2
A “Brief” History of the Psychology of Autobiographical Memory
Sotgiu, I. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-69571-2_2 · Cited by 1
Rethinking chronic pain: a dissociative framework for psychodynamic practice
Ho, T., Ryan, M., & Dong, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1690309 · Cited by 2
Yadav, C., & Herres, J. L. (2026) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605261419494 · Cited by 2
Herrmann, K., Weiss, M. H., Neukel, C., Schmahl, C. G., Steinmann, S., Zimmermann, J., Herpertz, S. C., & Bertsch, K. (2026) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2026.2646755 · Cited by 1
“Additional factors that may contribute to memory fragmentation or altered reporting include dissociative symptoms (Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012), individuals’ motivations to disclose, withhold, or fabricate information about maltreatment (Coleman et al., 2024), as well as depressive symptoms…”
"The Self-Simulation Theory: A Computational Theory of Consciousness"
Chakraborty, S. (2023) · Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research · doi:10.26717/bjstr.2023.48.007699 · Cited by 1
Benzakour, L., Kakoraiti, E., Perrin, A., Cereghetti, S., & Assal, F. (2022) · Journal of Medical Case Reports · doi:10.1186/s13256-022-03450-3 · Cited by 1
“The dissociation symptoms could underlie the impaired encoding of traumatic memory [16], which increases the risk of PTSD [12].”
BackgroundDissociation and Dissociative Identity Disorder ( DID )
Huntjens, R. J. C., & Dorahy, M. J. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0078 · Cited by 1
Chapter 16. Dissociative Disorders
Maldonado, J. R., & Spiegel, D. (2019) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615372980.lr16 · Cited by 1
Lynn, S. J., Maxwell, R., Malaktaris, A. L., Cleere, C., Lemons, P., Baltman, J., & Condon, L. P. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0164 · Cited by 1
The Self-Simulation Theory:A Computational Theory of ConsciousnessPreprint
Chakraborty, S., & Lahkar, R. (2022) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202211.0434.v1
Trauma-centred identity and autobiographical memory in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Ronayne, E. T. (2013) · UEA Digital Repository (University of East Anglia) · Cited by 1
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0007
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0006
Diagnostic Criteria and Assessment
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0002
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0003
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0005
Introductory Information for Therapists
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0001
Bittinger, J. N. (2012) · ResearchWorks at the University of Washington (University of Washington)
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Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0015
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0014
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0004
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0011
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0012
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0008
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0013
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0009
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.003.0010
The Self-Simulation Theory: A Computational Theory Of ConsciounessPreprint
Chakraborty, S., & Lahkar, R. (2022) · doi:10.14293/s2199-1006.1.sor-.ppz776i.v1
Sun, Y.-T. J., Takarangi, M. K. T., & Nixon, R. D. V. (2023) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2023.101889
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“It is also aligned with the dissociative encoding hypothesis, which posits that PD may disrupt the encoding and elaboration of traumatic memories, leading to increased PTSD symptoms (Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012).”
A Veteran’s Healing Through Abstract Expression: Examining Michael Novotny’s Artistic Portfolio
Boyd, K., & McKenna, B. (2025) · Journal of Veterans Studies · doi:10.21061/jvs.v11i1.703
(2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.002.0004
Carrión, V. G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.005.0001
(2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.002.0007
(2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780190201326.002.0012
Metadata
- Authors
- Bedard-Gilligan, M., & Zoellner, L. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- ORCID
- Zoellner, Lori A.
- Venue
- Memory
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2012-04
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 277-299
- ISSN
- 0965-8211 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0686
- PMC
- PMC3310188
- OpenAlex
- W2133489342
- Semantic Scholar
- ee94b243c79280f91f0c92428c6c68c6a819b6c4
- Cited by
- 116
- References
- 152
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 13.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Memory (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (F31MH074225, R01MH066347)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Keywords
- post-traumatic stress disorder, peritraumatic dissociation, trait dissociation, memory fragmentation, metamemory, self-reported memory
- MeSH terms
- Dissociative Disorders, Humans, Life Change Events, Memory, Memory Disorders, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Observer Variation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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