The DOI matches its Crossref record; 148 of the 152 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 15 of the 201 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Dissociation and memory fragmentation in post-traumatic stress disorder: An evaluation of the dissociative encoding hypothesis
Open accessAbstract
Several prominent theories of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) posit that peritraumatic dissociation results in insufficient encoding of the trauma memory and that persistent dissociation prevents memory elaboration, resulting in memory fragmentation and PTSD. In this review we summarise the empirical literature on peritraumatic and trait dissociation and trauma narrative fragmentation as measured by meta-memory and rater/objective coding. Across 16 studies to date, the association between dissociation and fragmentation was most prominent when examining peritraumatic dissociation and patient's own ratings of memory fragmentation. This relationship did not hold when examining trait dissociation or rater-coded or computer-generated measures of fragmentation. Thus initial evidence points more towards a strong self-reported association between constructs that is not supported on more objective fragmentation coding. Measurement overlap, construct ambiguity, and exclusion of potential confounds may underlie lack of a strong association between dissociation and objective-rated fragmentation.
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Claims the paper makes
81 No full text of the sources · 43 Own interpretation · 19 Not checked yet · 17 No basis given · 9 Sources not found · 8 Partly supported · 5 Own result · 3 Supported so far · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“although acute stress disorder (ASD), a disorder characterized by dissociative symptoms during or immediately following a traumatic event, is associated with PTSD (e.g., Creamer, O'Donnell, & Pattison, 2004; Harvey & Bryant, 2000; Murray et al., 2002)”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Conceptual and Measurement Issues
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Creamer, O'Donnell, & Pattison, 2004 source
The Abstract reports that ASD symptom clusters contributed to predicting subsequent PTSD severity in severely injured trauma survivors. The Introduction describes dissociative symptoms as a core feature of ASD. The paper cautions that ASD was a poor screening test in this population, but that does not contradict the stated association. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harvey & Bryant, 2000 source
- Supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 source
The Clinical outcome section reports that 77% of out-patients who met ASD criteria during the four weeks after an accident met PTSD criteria at six months. This supports the stated association; the paper also notes that the timing of ASD assessment matters. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Growing evidence suggests a tendency to dissociate (trait) and continued dissociation in response to reminders (persistent) may be more predictive of PTSD than peritraumatic dissociation (Briere et al., 2005; McFarlane, 1997; Murray et al., 2002; Pansetis & Bryant, 2003).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Conceptual and Measurement Issues
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Briere et al., 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McFarlane, 1997 source
- Partly supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Dissociation as a predictor of PTSD” (page not provided), the paper says persistent dissociation was a stronger predictor of chronic PTSD than dissociation during the accident. It does not support the same comparison for trait dissociation: the outpatient study found that dissociation during the accident predicted PTSD symptoms over and above a pre-accident tendency to dissociate. (LLM, conf=0.89)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Consistent with the findings of Halligan et al. (2003), individuals in the outpatient sample who reported higher peritraumatic dissociation on the SDQ also reported moderately higher single item meta-memory fragmentation (“Are your memories of the accident in any way unclear or jumbled?”) immediately after trauma.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 source
The Other cognitive predictors section reports a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.37) between self-reported memory fragmentation and initial dissociation in out-patients. The Memory fragmentation section gives the quoted single-item question; the paper identifies the SDQ as its measure of dissociation during the accident. In the Out-patient sample section, it says questionnaires were sent within 48 hours and most were returned within the first week. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Taken together results of Halligan et al. (2003), Murray et al. (2002), and Hardy et al. (2009) generally suggest that, in Criterion A trauma-exposed samples, individuals with higher peritraumatic dissociation consistently show higher meta-memory ratings of fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Halligan et al., 2003 source
- Partly supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Other cognitive predictors” (page not supplied), self-reported memory fragmentation correlated positively with initial dissociation among out-patients (r = 0.37, P < 0.001). The passage does not report the same association for the in-patient sample, so this paper supports the relationship in one road-accident sample but not the claim that it appeared consistently across samples. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hardy et al., 2009 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Meta-memory fragmentation assessed soon after trauma modestly predicted PTSD at four weeks and six months following trauma in both samples.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Other cognitive predictors section reports that memory fragmentation tended to have a positive relationship with PTSD severity. Its Table 2 does not show consistent prediction at both follow-ups in both samples: initial self-reported fragmentation was not significantly associated with six-month PTSD in out-patients or with either follow-up in in-patients, although expert-rated fragmentation in in-patients showed stronger associations. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Interestingly, their global rating of narrative fragmentation at initial assessment was a stronger predictor of PTSD than coded fragmentation at both one and six months post trauma, at a moderate level.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Table 2 (Other cognitive predictors; page not specified) shows that the initial expert rating of narrative fragmentation correlated with PTSD severity at four weeks (0.41) and six months (0.58), more strongly than patients’ self-reports. The paper does not compare the global rating with coded narrative fragmentation; its comparison is with self-reported fragmentation. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“However, trait dissociation, assessed by the DES, was not significantly correlated with self-reported memory loss, suggesting that severity of trait dissociation was not strongly associated with perceived memory quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites van der Hart et al., 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Dissociation section (p. 5) reports that DES scores were not significantly correlated with the degree of forgetting the target traumatic event. That supports the stated non-correlation, but the paper’s result is narrower than self-reported memory loss or perceived memory quality generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Dissociation may be more of a consequence than a cause, related to high levels of arousal during trauma (Krystal, Woods, Hill, & Charney, 1991; Marmar et al., 1997).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites Krystal, Woods, Hill, & Charney, 1991 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Symptoms of Self-Defined Panic Attacks section records feelings of unreality during panic attacks, but does not discuss dissociation as a consequence rather than a cause of trauma-related arousal. The Discussion addresses similarities among panic-attack subtypes, not that proposed relationship. Searches for dissociation, trauma, and arousal found no passage addressing the claim; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not matchedcites Marmar et al., 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Seven studies have investigated peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation (Buck, Kindt, & van den Hout, 2005b; Engelhard, van den Hout, Kindt, Arntz, & Schouten, 2003; Halligan et al., 2003; Hardy, Young, & Holmes, 2009; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt, van den Hout, & Buck, 2005; Murray et al., 2002).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Buck, Kindt, & van den Hout, 2005b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Engelhard, van den Hout, Kindt, Arntz, & Schouten, 2003 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Halligan et al., 2003 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Indeed, some prospective studies suggest that peritraumatic dissociation predicts PTSD over time (e.g., Birmes et al., 2003; Ehlers, Mayou, & Bryant, 1998; Holen, 1991; Marmar et al., 1999; Murray, Ehlers, & Mayou, 2002; Schafer, Barkmann, Riedesser, & Schulte-Markwort, 2004; Shalev & Freedman, 2005; Ursano et al., 1999); however, others do not”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Conceptual and Measurement Issues
What the sources say
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 59
- Probably not a substantial claim. 34
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Fragmentation of the trauma memory is a phenomenon that is often clinically observed, and continues to be an important area of focus for those treating PTSD (e.g., Becker, Zayfert, & Anderson, 2004, van der Kolk et al., 2005).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Focus of the Present Paper: Dissociation and Memory Processing
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Becker, Zayfert, & Anderson, 2004 source
- Could not verifycites van der Kolk et al., 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Treatment Implications section discusses dissociation and affect regulation as treatment concerns before trauma exposure, but does not identify fragmented trauma memory as a clinical observation or treatment focus. Searches for “fragmentation of the trauma memory” and “fragmented traumatic memories treatment PTSD” found no passage addressing that specific claim. (LLM, conf=0.73)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“This investigation suggests that although the majority of individuals with DID reported a lack of narrative memory, high trait dissociation was not specifically related to fragmented meta-memory and memory disturbance may not be unique to traumatic events, at least in a severe clinical sample.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites van der Hart et al., 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Fragmentary Recall of Memories (p. 10) reports that only 45.6% of the DID participants developed a complete narrative memory of trauma. The Discussion (p. 9) and Conclusion (p. 13) report fragmented recall of emotionally significant non-traumatic events as well. The Dissociation section (p. 5) finds no significant correlation between dissociation scores and the degree of forgetting the traumatic event, but does not establish the claimed lack of a specific relationship with fragmented meta-memory. (LLM, conf=0.86)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In the studies reviewed here, three measures were used for peritraumatic dissociation: the PDEQ (Marmar et al., 1997), the State Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ; Murray et al., 2002), and the Acute Stress Disorder Inventory (ASDI; Bryant, Harvey, Dang, & Sackville, 1998).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Marmar et al., 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites Murray et al., 2002 source
The citation to Murray et al. (2002) is attached specifically to the State Dissociation Questionnaire, not to the claim about all three measures. In “Symptoms of PTSD,” the paper says it used the SDQ to assess dissociation during the accident, supporting its identification as a measure of peritraumatic dissociation. No page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bryant, Harvey, Dang, & Sackville, 1998 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Memories change over time (e.g., Hepp et al., 2006; Southwick et al., 1997; Zoellner et al., 2001) and time since the trauma may degrade memory traces (e.g., McNally, 2005), resulting in recounting that appears fragmented.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Hepp et al., 2006 source
The Results section (‘Inconsistent reports of PTE’) shows that participants reported potentially traumatic events differently in 1993 and 1999, supporting the clause for which Hepp et al. is cited: memories change over time. The later suggestion about degraded memory traces is cited to McNally, not Hepp; this verdict does not attribute that mechanism or fragmented recounting to Hepp. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Southwick et al., 1997 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zoellner et al., 2001 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“It is interesting to note that only two studies in this review looked specifically at childhood abuse (Peace et al., 2008; van der Hart et al., 2005) and both failed to find consistent significant relationships between trait dissociation and memory fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peace et al., 2008 source
- Partly supportedcites van der Hart et al., 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (p. 2) says the study examined traumatic and non-traumatic memories in women with dissociative identity disorder, and the paper reports that all participants had histories of severe childhood abuse (p. 1). The Dissociation results (p. 5) found no significant relationship between dissociation scores and the degree of forgetting a traumatic event, but forgetting is not the same as memory fragmentation; the cited paper does not report the claimed test of trait dissociation against fragmentation. The assertion that there were only two such studies in the citing review cannot be established from this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the reconstructive, changing nature of memory (e.g., Schacter, 1996) challenges the notion that fragmentation is unique to trauma, as it is expected that all memories will be recounted with varying detail and coherence over time (McNally, 2005).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schacter, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites McNally, 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Memory Does Not Operate Like a Videotape Recorder” (page unavailable), McNally says all recollection is reconstructive and no memory is immune to change over time. “Confusion About Repetition, Emotional Arousal, and Memory” adds that details of similar events may blur. The paper does not establish that all memories will be recounted with varying coherence over time. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Across studies, individuals reporting higher peritraumatic dissociation reported higher meta-memory fragmentation.”
- Also stated in: § Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation · boosted
“Thus, the vast majority of studies show a link between peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation, including three studies that used Criterion A samples and three analogue studies, consistently showing a positive moderate association.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation · boosted
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Similar to the above analogue studies (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005), this study is limited by the same single-item measure and again suggests that when assessed with analogue designs that greater peritraumatic dissociation is related to greater meta-memory fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, 16 studies were included in this review.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature
plaincorrelational- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper may give no reason why it holds. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This relationship did not hold when examining trait dissociation or rater-coded or computer-generated measures of fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Overall, the mixed pattern of results for this study and the lack of reported findings make it difficult to draw strong conclusions; but, in general, the pattern of findings does not suggest a consistent relationship between meta-memory fragmentation and trait dissociation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peace et al., 2008 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, although reports of peritraumatic dissociation appear to be associated with perceptions of fragmentation, it was not consistently associated with rater or objectively-coded fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are aware of no studies that have examined the association between trait dissociation and objectively-coded fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Overall, higher peritraumatic dissociation was inconsistently associated with rater-coded or objective fragmentation (Buck et al., 2006b; Jones et al., 2007; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Zoellner et al., 2002), with only two studies out of seven finding consistent positive relationships (Halligan et al., 2003; Harvey & Bryant, 1999).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast to Rubin et al. (2004), this study suggests that a tendency to dissociate after a traumatic event is related to perceptions that the trauma memory lacks narrative structure, although this is based on a single-item qualitative assessment of narrative quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Thus, in analogue studies, peritraumatic dissociation was not significantly related to sequential memory performance (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003) or subjectively coded fragmentation (Buck et al., 2006b; Kindt et al., 2005).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although the authors suggest a possible link between peritraumatic dissociation and coded fragmentation, peritraumatic dissociation was not consistently related to coded fragmentation and the mixed pattern of results is inconclusive.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zoellner et al., 2002 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The SDQ, although used in several studies, lacks published reliability or validity information.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, to date, no studies have looked at trauma narratives in terms of their degree of integration into an individuals' overall autobiographical memory.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In regard to trait dissociation, the DES (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986) is commonly used in traumatized samples and was used in the large majority of studies in this review that included trait dissociation (8 out of 12).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bernstein & Putnam, 1986 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gray and Lombardo (2001) showed that findings of greater fragmentation for trauma narratives of individuals with PTSD disappeared when controlling for this using a vocabulary task, suggesting that fragmentation may be an artifact of lower verbal ability.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gray & Lombardo, 2001 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Peace and colleagues (2008) also looked at differences in memory quality for childhood and adult traumatic events and again found few consistent differences with the exception of less coherence and more repression association with childhood events.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peace et al., 2008 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, this is only one single investigation and they did not report on differences in dissociation for adult versus childhood trauma”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, the results of this review did not find consistent relationships between memory fragmentation and dissociation, with the exception of peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The majority of current studies exclude these potential influences.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It appears that dissociation during a traumatic event is more associated with increased meta-memory fragmentation in the trauma memory, suggesting a link between dissociative encoding and perception of memory quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this emerging literature, the associations between peritraumatic dissociation and meta-memory fragmentation were the most consistent; those who reported dissociating during the trauma also reported perceiving their traumatic memories as more fragmented.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, research exploring persistent dissociation is currently lacking in the literature and is needed to further our understanding of memory fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“By hindering processing, persistent dissociation, similar to other types of cognitive and behavioral avoidance (Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996; Panasetis & Bryant, 2003; Wagner & Linehan, 1998) may contribute to both memory fragmentation and PTSD development.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Conceptual and Measurement Issues
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Several reviews have critically examined the relationship between memory fragmentation and PTSD (see O'Kearney & Perrott, 2006; Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Focus of the Present Paper: Dissociation and Memory Processing
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Meta-memory fragmentation at one-month post loss mediated the relationship between peritraumatic dissociation and PTSD severity at one month, but not four months, post pregnancy loss.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Engelhard et al., 2003 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Taken together, higher peritraumatic dissociation was moderately associated with meta-memory disorganization; however, these results cast doubt on disorganization as a mechanism of PTSD development.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Meta-Memory Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Halligan et al., 2003 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, initial evidence points more toward a strong self-reported association between constructs that is not supported on more objective fragmentation coding.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Studies with adolescents/children were excluded because memory processes, especially narrative memories, may be different in children (e.g., Kenardy et al., 2007; Pynoos, Steinberg, & Aronson, 1997), warranting a separate analysis.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“However, recollections of peritraumatic reactions are often inconsistent over time and are potentially biased by current symptoms (Harvey & Bryant, 2000; Southwick, Morgan, Nicolaou, & Charney, 1997; Zoellner, Sacks, & Foa, 2001).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Conceptual and Measurement Issues
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, this issue of the relationship between dissociation, trauma, and information processing remains contentious.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Abstract > Focus of the Present Paper: Dissociation and Memory Processing
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Thus, decreases in subjectively coded peritraumatic dissociation may be an artifact of the changes in coded narrative organization, and peritraumatic dissociation was not associated with fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Moulds & Bryant, 2005 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As discussed above, trait dissociation may be representative of persistent dissociation after a traumatic event, thus contributing to fragmented trauma memories.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these finding suggest that peritraumatic dissociation is related to individuals' perception of their memories but is not consistently related to how others' perceive and rate these trauma memories or other more objective coding of these memories as fragmented.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For the sexual traumatic experience, higher trait dissociation, as assessed by the DES, was significantly associated with more reported emotion and memory repression, and less reported memory quality, at a moderate to strong level.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peace et al., 2008 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Taken together, these findings question the association between peritraumatic dissociation and disorganization and in particular suggest that disorganization may be related more to PTSD than to dissociation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jones et al., 2007 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the prospective analyses, although disorganization at initial assessment predicted PTSD three months post-trauma, it did not predict over and above peritraumatic dissociation (i.e., ASD diagnosis).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jones et al., 2007 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Using both subjective and objective coding, narratives of individuals with high peritraumatic dissociation had more sensory components and lower reading ease than those low in peritraumatic dissociation; however, inconsistent with fragmentation, individuals with high peritraumatic dissociation recounted narratives with higher-grade levels and more negative emotions.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zoellner et al., 2002 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thus, it remains unclear if trait dissociation is related to either higher rater-defined narrative fragmentation or PTSD.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peace et al., 2008 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is inconsistent with meta-memory for snapshot quality, suggesting that peritraumatic dissociation predicts perception of memory quality, but not recounting or memory performance, after an analogue traumatic event.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“In the three analogue studies described earlier (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005), peritraumatic dissociation during film viewing was not significantly related to either performance on a sequential memory task (Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005) or to rater-coded narrative recall using a one-item rating (Kindt et al., 2005).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A failure to conceptualize trait, state, and peritraumatic dissociation as distinct, yet related, constructs may further be complicating conclusions on dissociation and fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“A variety of measures exist for dissociation, and there is not a “gold-standard” (Bryant, 2007; Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, dissociation is reported after both aversive and pleasant events (Candel & Merckelbach, 2004), casting doubt on dissociation as unique to trauma.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Candel & Merckelbach, 2004 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To elaborate, dissociation during a trauma may help protect against encoding threatening, aversive memories (e.g., Horowitz, 1986) and may reduce distress and physiological arousal, although support for this hypothesis is inconsistent (Bryant, Harvey, Guthrie, & Moulds, 2000; Fikretoglu et al., 2006; Griffin, Resick, & Mechanic, 1997; Kaufman et al., 2002; Nixon & Bryant, 2005).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Emotional numbing is often considered a key symptom of dissociation (e.g., Bryant, 2007; Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Dissociation is a ubiquitous and normative phenomenon, occurring in well-adjusted, healthy individuals as well as trauma survivors (e.g., Bernstein & Putnam, 1986; Kihlstrom et al., 1994; Bryant, 2007).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The problem with this is that an inability to precisely measure fragmentation results in it being inadequately defined; a “know it when you see it” phenomenon.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As mentioned above, perhaps fragmentation is most easily detected with global impressions.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Anecdotally, fragmentation is commonly reported in clinical observations (van der Kolk & van der Hart, 1989), however if fragmentation is indeed a ubiquitous experience after trauma, it is surprising that we would be able to not capture it when objectively assessing memory quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites van der Kolk & van der Hart, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Trait dissociation implies persistent post-trauma dissociation in that a higher general tendency to dissociate may indicate an increased likelihood to dissociate following a traumatic event and may contribute to higher memory fragmentation (e.g., Bryant, 2007; Ehlers & Clark, 2000).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Finally, the ASDI is a measure of ASD and may be confounding peritraumatic and continued dissociation (Bryant, 2007).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bryant, 2007 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“omitting key constructs that are positively associated with dissociation and PTSD (Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996; Foa & Riggs, 1993; Foa, Riggs, & Gershuny, 1995).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996 source
- Not matchedcites Foa & Riggs, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Foa, Riggs, & Gershuny, 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that either persistent dissociation is not meaningfully related to increased fragmentation or that trait dissociation measures are not capturing this reminder-cued dissociation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Specifically, trait dissociation may be a vulnerability factor for peritraumatic dissociation (Kihlstrom et al., 1994), potentially mediating the relationship between peritraumatic dissociation and fragmentation”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kihlstrom et al., 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As discussed, questions from the PDEQ overlap with fragmentation, potentially confusing constructs.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“As noted by Brewin (2007), assessment of central versus peripheral details in traumatic events, which are often complex and prolonged, is challenging.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brewin, 2007 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“If, as suggested by some fragmentation-focused theories (e.g., Brewin, 2001; van der Kolk,1987), trauma memories are represented differently than other types of memories due to dissociative encoding then we might expect more robust findings regarding dissociation and fragmentation across measures and constructs.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brewin, 2001 source
- Not matchedcites van der Kolk, 1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“For example, Ehlers and Clark's (2000) cognitive processing model posits processes, such as avoidance and interpretations of the event, to account for unelaborated trauma memories and PTSD, and may provide a more parsimonious view of post-trauma psychological processes, and shift emphasis to beliefs and perceptions.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ehlers & Clark, 2000 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that the focus should potentially be on beliefs about memory instead of actual memory quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, it may not be necessary to posit dissociation as explanatory for fragmentation, as some degree of fragmentation is an expected, normal phenomenon.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In cases where dissociation during recall (state) decreases distress, we might expect lower fragmentation; whereas, in cases where dissociation does not decrease distress, it may result in either higher meta-memory fragmentation or narratives that look fragmented when recalled (e.g., contains uhs, ums, confusion), but may not actually be fragmented.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, similar to distress, time, and cognitive ability, the use of data-driven processing strategies may help account for both higher dissociation and fragmentation, suggesting that these important variables need to be carefully addressed in future studies.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These factors, which stress both encoding during an event and processing following an event, have been posited to explain the existence of both intrusions and fragmented memory in PTSD (Ehlers et al., 2004).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ehlers et al., 2004 source
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Indeed, it has been suggested that fragmentation may be an epiphenomenon resulting from increased distress during recall (Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004)”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Furthermore, self-report measures often assess dissociation that occurred months or years earlier, and retrospective reporting of trauma reactions are often inaccurate (e.g., Bryant, 2007).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bryant, 2007 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, current functioning or the mere passage of time may be a more parsimonious explanation for higher fragmentation and dissociation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Distress or arousal during memory encoding has been posited to affect memory fragmentation (e.g., Shobe & Kihlstrom, 1997).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Shobe & Kihlstrom, 1997 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“It is widely accepted that, during emotional events, memory for central details is enhanced though memory for peripheral details is impaired (see Christianson, 1992).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Christianson, 1992 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, benzodiazapines, a class of medications often used by individuals with PTSD, inhibit memory encoding when taken during an event but also paradoxically facilitate memory of traumatic events when taken during recall (e.g., Krystal, Bremner, Southwick, & Charney, 1998), suggesting that they could either increase or decrease fragmentation depending on context of use.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Krystal, Bremner, Southwick, & Charney, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This could explain conflicting findings between meta-memory and objective coding measures, with distress or arousal associated with state dissociation more directly impacting narrative recounting than self-reports of memory quality.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Defining what aspects of an event are expected to be recalled clearly versus those that will be more difficult to retrieve is idiographic.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Abnormal versus Normal Processes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“As discussed, dissociation and memory fragmentation figure prominently into several current theories of PTSD (e.g., Brewin, 2001; Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Foa, 1997; van der Kolk, 1987).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If dissociation and fragmentation are indirectly associated through related factors, then it may be these third variables that explain observed relationships.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Dissociation is often assessed retrospectively, and several factors can affect accuracy including forgetting, attribution, and malingering (Candel & Merckelbach, 2004).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Additional related constructs
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Candel & Merckelbach, 2004 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The finding that individuals who recall feeling disconnected during the traumatic experience also tend to recall the memory as more fragmented suggests that for some trauma survivors peritraumatic emotional reactions, such as dissociation, may function as avoidance and lead to a perception that the memory is unclear and difficult to recall.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is problematic as it may be resulting in an incomplete picture of theorized mechanisms.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, dissociation may serve the individual as an emotion regulation strategy that helps them avoid trauma-related thoughts and emotions as opposed to a process that contributes specifically to the quality of the trauma memory.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Theoretical and Clinical Implications
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings have important implications for theories which posit that dissociation negatively impacts memory processing and thereby contributes to the development and maintenance of PTSD.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Concluding Comments and Future Directions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper relies on this without support.
Before this review, no thorough review had examined the empirical evidence linking dissociation, memory processing, and PTSD.
“However, a thorough review of the empirical evidence linking these constructs has yet to be conducted.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Fragmentation is pervasive across trauma types, including childhood trauma.
“However, we did include adult samples reporting childhood trauma because fragmentation is hypothesized to be pervasive, and excluding based on trauma type would restrict conclusions.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“Only two studies included both meta-memory and coded fragmentation (Halligan et al., 2003; Murray et al., 2002), allowing for direct comparisons between types of fragmentation.”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“Similarly, Buck et al. (2006b), also described above, found no significant relationship between peritraumatic dissociation and rater-coded fragmentation in individuals with spider phobia, using the same one-item rating as Kindt et al. (2005).”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“Other clinical samples produced either mixed findings (Jones et al., 2007; Zoellner et al., 2002) or findings actually in the opposite direction (Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Murray et al., 2002).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“However, they did not report results on peritraumatic dissociation and coded fragmentation, although both were assessed.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Overall, higher peritraumatic dissociation was inconsistently associated with rater-coded or objective fragmentation (Buck et al., 2006b; Jones et al., 2007; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Zoellner et al., 2002), with only two studies out of seven finding consistent positive relationships (Halligan et al., 2003; Harvey & Bryant, 1999).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
Reported 7 · recomputed 8
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“with only two studies out of seven finding consistent positive relationships (Halligan et al., 2003; Harvey & Bryant, 1999).”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Peritraumatic Dissociation and Rater-based or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“Overall, higher peritraumatic dissociation was inconsistently associated with rater-coded or objective fragmentation (Buck et al., 2006b; Jones et al., 2007; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Zoellner et al., 2002)”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Summary and Discussion of Empirical Findings > Dissociation and Fragmentation: Measurement
“One-item assessments were more likely to show positive associations with dissociation (positive association: Buck et al., 2006b; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Engelhard et al., 2003; Halligan et al., 2003; Hardy et al., 2009; Murray et al., 2002; van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995; van der Hart et al., 2005)”
§ Dissociation and Memory Fragmentation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Evaluation of the Dissociative Encoding Hypothesis > Review of the Empirical Literature > Trait Dissociation and Meta-memory, Rater-based, or Objective Indices of Fragmentation
“However, trait dissociation, assessed by the DES, was not significantly correlated with self-reported memory loss, suggesting that severity of trait dissociation was not strongly associated with perceived memory quality.”
Citations
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“As discussed, dissociation and memory fragmentation figure prominently in several current theories of PTSD (e.g., Brewin, 2001; Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Foa, 1997; van der Kolk, 1987).”
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The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system
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“…memory recall (e.g., Schacter, 1996), that sensory-based encoding results in a perceptual memory trace that is involuntarily cued by perceptual stimuli (e.g., Roediger, 1990), and that elaboration of events in memory will prevent unintentional recall (e.g., Conway & Pleydell-Pearce, 2000).”
Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale
BERNSTEIN, E. M., & PUTNAM, F. W. (1986) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-198612000-00004 · Cited by 3,793 · cited 15×
“Rubin and colleagues (2004) examined post-trauma trait dissociation, using the Dissociative Experiences Questionnaire (DES; Bernstein & Putnam, 1986), and meta-memory fragmentation, using a multiitem scale (Autobiographical Memory Questionnaire, AMQ), in 50 veterans with combat-related PTSD.…”
InfluentialPredictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis
Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.52 · Cited by 3,322
Childhood traumas: an outline and overview
Terr, L. C. (1991) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.148.1.10 · Cited by 2,281 · cited 1×
“Based on these general memory models, dissociation and inadequate memory encoding and processing may play a causal role in the development of PTSD (eg, Brewin, 2001 ; Foa & Riggs, 1993 ; Krystal, Southwick, & Charney, 1995 ; Terr, 1991 ; van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995 ).”
MethodHorowitz, M. J. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-2820-3_4 · Cited by 1,866
Traumatic stress: the effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-2469 · Cited by 1,818
Assessing Psychological Trauma and PTSD
Allden, K. (1998) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-199807000-00018 · Cited by 1,709
A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder.
Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.4.670 · Cited by 1,696
The Body Keeps the Score: Memory and the Evolving Psychobiology of Posttraumatic Stress
van der Kolk, B. A. (1994) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/10673229409017088 · Cited by 1,367 · cited 1×
“Similarly, peritraumatic dissociation, a form of state dissociation, refers to dissociation that occurs during a trauma and is theorised as causal for PTSD (e.g., van der Kolk, 1987, 1994).”
Searching for memory: the brain, the mind, and the past
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-2465 · Cited by 1,320
Implicit memory: Retention without remembering.
Roediger, H. L., III (1990) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.45.9.1043 · Cited by 1,315
Disorders of extreme stress: The empirical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma
van der Kolk, B. A., Roth, S., Pelcovitz, D., Sunday, S., & Spinazzola, J. (2005) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20047 · Cited by 1,284 · cited 1×
“Fragmentation of the trauma memory is a phenomenon that is often clinically observed, and continues to be an important area of focus for those treating PTSD (eg, Becker, Zayfert, & Anderson, 2004 ; van der Kolk, Roth, Pelcovitz, Sunday, & Spinazzola, 2005 ).”
BackgroundDissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study
van Der Kolk, B. A., & Fisler, R. (1995) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.2490080402 · Cited by 1,262 · cited 9×
“Based on these general memory models, dissociation and inadequate memory encoding and processing may play a causal role in the development of PTSD (e.g., Brewin, 2001; Foa & Riggs, 1993; Krystal, Southwick, & Charney, 1995; Terr, 1991; van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPredictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis.
Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2008) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/1942-9681.s.1.3 · Cited by 1,252
Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: A critical review
Christianson, S.-Å. (1992) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.284 · Cited by 1,174 · cited 2×
“It is widely accepted that, during emotional events, memory for central details is enhanced though memory for peripheral details is impaired (see Christianson, 1992 ).”
Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder
Brewin, C. R., & Holmes, E. A. (2003) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(03)00033-3 · Cited by 1,132
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
K, R. (1950) · The American Journal of the Medical Sciences · doi:10.1097/00000441-195006000-00023 · Cited by 1,130
Emotion Modulation in PTSD: Clinical and Neurobiological Evidence for a Dissociative Subtype
Lanius, R. A., Vermetten, E., Loewenstein, R. J., Brand, B., Schmahl, C., Bremner, J. D., & Spiegel, D. (2010) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081168 · Cited by 1,123 · cited 5×
“…of theoretical models discussing the overlap among dissociation, trauma exposure, and memory processing including work on neurobiological underpinnings of dissociation and traumatic responses (e.g., Bremner, 2000, 2003; Krystal, Bennett, Bremner, Southwick, & Charney, 1996; Lanius et al., 2010).”
InfluentialPsychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents.
Ehlers, A., Mayou, R. A., & Bryant, B. (1998) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.107.3.508 · Cited by 1,059
Phenomenal characteristics of memories for perceived and imagined autobiographical events.
Johnson, M. K., Foley, M. A., Suengas, A. G., & Raye, C. L. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.117.4.371 · Cited by 1,046
Implicit memory: Retention without remembering.
Roediger, H. L., III (1990) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.45.9.1043 · Cited by 891 · cited 3×
“…memory recall (e.g., Schacter, 1996), that sensory-based encoding results in a perceptual memory trace that is involuntarily cued by perceptual stimuli (e.g., Roediger, 1990), and that elaboration of events in memory will prevent unintentional recall (e.g., Conway & Pleydell-Pearce, 2000).”
A survey of psychologists’ attitudes towards and utilization of exposure therapy for PTSD
Becker, C. B., Zayfert, C., & Anderson, E. (2004) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(03)00138-4 · Cited by 759 · cited 1×
“Fragmentation of the trauma memory is a phenomenon that is often clinically observed, and continues to be an important area of focus for those treating PTSD (eg, Becker, Zayfert, & Anderson, 2004 ; van der Kolk, Roth, Pelcovitz, Sunday, & Spinazzola, 2005 ).”
Seelye, E. E. (1987) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1987.41.2.310 · Cited by 737
Bremner, J. D. (1999) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(99)00009-8 · Cited by 724
Peritraumatic dissociation and posttraumatic stress in male Vietnam theater veterans
Marmar, C. R., Weiss, D. S., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Jordan, B. K., Kulka, R. A., & Hough, R. L. (1994) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.151.6.902 · Cited by 681
Pierre Janet and the breakdown of adaptation in psychological trauma
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Intrusive re‐experiencing in post‐traumatic stress disorder: Phenomenology, theory, and therapy
Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., & Michael, T. (2004) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210444000025 · Cited by 645 · cited 3×
“These factors, which stress both encoding during an event and processing following an event, have been posited to explain the existence of both intrusions and fragmented memory in PTSD (Ehlers et al., 2004).”
InfluentialA cognitive neuroscience account of posttraumatic stress disorder and its treatment
Brewin, C. R. (2001) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(00)00087-5 · Cited by 588
Halligan, S. L., Michael, T., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2003) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.71.3.419 · Cited by 585
Taylor, S. J., Thordarson, D. S., Maxfield, L., Fedoroff, I. C., Lovell, K., & Ogrodniczuk, J. S. (2003) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.71.2.330 · Cited by 563
Change in rape narratives during exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder
Foa, E. B., Molnar, C., & Cashman, L. (1995) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1007/bf02102894 · Cited by 555
Effect of incest on self and social functioning: A developmental psychopathology perspective.
Cole, P. M., & Putnam, F. W. (1992) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.60.2.174 · Cited by 528
Murray, J., Ehlers, A., & Mayou, R. A. (2002) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.180.4.363 · Cited by 505 · cited 22×
“In the studies reviewed here, three measures were used for peritraumatic dissociation: the PDEQ (Marmar et al., 1997), the State Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ; Murray et al., 2002), and the Acute Stress Disorder Inventory (ASDI; Bryant, Harvey, Dang, & Sackville, 1998).”
InfluentialElzinga, B. (2002) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(01)00351-2 · Cited by 473
Harvey, A. G., & Bryant, R. A. (1998) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.66.3.507 · Cited by 469
Prolonged Exposure versus Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) for PTSD rape victims
ROTHBAUM, B. O., Astin, M. C., & Marsteller, F. (2005) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20069 · Cited by 458
Stress Response Syndromes, 2nd ed
Figley, C. R. (1987) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.144.9.1230-a · Cited by 456
Arousal, numbing, and intrusion: symptom structure of PTSD following assault
Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., & Gershuny, B. S. (1995) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.152.1.116 · Cited by 453
Consistency of memory for combat-related traumatic events in veterans of Operation Desert Storm
Southwick, S. M., Morgan, C. A., Nicolaou, A. L., & Charney, D. S. (1997) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.154.2.173 · Cited by 438
Peritraumatic Dissociative Experiences Questionnaire
Marmar, C. R., Weiss, D. S., & Metzler, T. J. (1997) · PsycTESTS Dataset · doi:10.1037/t07470-000 · Cited by 423 · cited 7×
“In the studies reviewed here, three measures were used for peritraumatic dissociation: the PDEQ (Marmar et al., 1997), the State Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ; Murray et al., 2002), and the Acute Stress Disorder Inventory (ASDI; Bryant, Harvey, Dang, & Sackville, 1998).”
InfluentialCognitive-behavioral therapies for trauma
Follette, V. M., Ruzek, J. I., & Abueg, F. R. (1998) · Cited by 404
Dissociation and posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam combat veterans
(1992) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.149.3.328 · Cited by 381
Schmidt, F. L., Le, H., & Ilies, R. (2003) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.8.2.206 · Cited by 362 · cited 1×
“A further disadvantage of one-item scales is a tendency to be unstable and vulnerable to random response error (eg, Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994 ; Schmidt, Le, & Ilies, 2003 ).”
Harvey, A. G., & Bryant, R. A. (1998) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.66.3.507 · Cited by 360
Predicting symptomatic distress in emergency services personnel.
Weiss, D. S., Marmar, C. R., Metzler, T. J., & Ronfeldt, H. M. (1995) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.63.3.361 · Cited by 352
Predicting symptomatic distress in emergency services personnel
Weiss, D. S., Marmar, C. R., Metzler, T. J., & Ronfeldt, H. M. (1995) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.63.3.361 · Cited by 352 · cited 2×
“The majority of cross-sectional, retrospective studies suggest that peritraumatic dissociation predicts PTSD (Berg, Grieger, & Spira, 2005; Bremner et al., 1992; Hetzel & McCanne, 2005; Marmar et al., 1994; Tichenor, Marmar, Weiss, Metzler, & Ronfeldt, 1996; Weiss et al., 1995).”
Dissociative reactions to the San Francisco Bay Area earthquake of 1989
Cardeña, E., & Spiegel, D. (1993) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.150.3.474 · Cited by 349
Objective assessment of peritraumatic dissociation: psychophysiological indicators
(1997) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.154.8.1081 · Cited by 347
Foa, E. B., & Rauch, S. A. M. (2004) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.72.5.879 · Cited by 339
Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder.
Yahuda, R., & McFarlane, A. C. (1997) · New York Academy of Sciences eBooks · Cited by 335
Conklin, H. M., Luciana, M., Hooper, C. J., & Yarger, R. S. (2007) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn3101_6 · Cited by 330
Bryant, R. A., Harvey, A. G., Guthrie, R. M., & Moulds, M. L. (2000) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.109.2.341 · Cited by 328
Marx, B. P., & Sloan, D. M. (2005) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.04.004 · Cited by 310
Trauma, Memory, and Dissociation
Miller, M. C. (1999) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v60n0917 · Cited by 292
Cognitive processes in dissociation: An analysis of core theoretical assumptions.
Giesbrecht, T., Lynn, S. J., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Merckelbach, H. (2008) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.5.617 · Cited by 290 · cited 1×
“Despite the importance of dissociation and memory fragmentation to clinical conceptualisations of PTSD, the empirical link between dissociation and trauma memory fragmentation has been disputed (Giesbrecht, Lynn, Lilienfeld, & Merckelbach, 2008 ).”
PTSD Following Terrorist Attacks: A Prospective Evaluation
Shalev, A. Y., & Freedman, S. (2005) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.6.1188 · Cited by 288
Phenomenology and psychological assessment of complex posttraumatic states
Briere, J., & Spinazzola, J. (2005) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20048 · Cited by 287
Peritraumatic and Persistent Dissociation in the Presumed Etiology of PTSD
Briere, J., Scott, C. R., & Weathers, F. W. (2005) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.12.2295 · Cited by 281 · cited 3×
“Growing evidence suggests a tendency to dissociate (trait) and continued dissociation in response to reminders (persistent) may be more predictive of PTSD than peritraumatic dissociation (Briere et al., 2005; McFarlane, 1997; Murray et al., 2002; Pansetis & Bryant, 2003).”
Shapiro, F., & Maxfield, L. (2002) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.10068 · Cited by 279 · cited 2×
“Indeed, the notion of fragmented memories figures prominently in many of our current treatment approaches (eg, Shapiro & Maxfield, 2002 ).”
Early predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder
Bryant, R. A. (2003) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(02)01895-4 · Cited by 275 · cited 3×
“…following a traumatic event, is associated with PTSD (e.g., Creamer, O’Donnell, & Pattison, 2004; Harvey & Bryant, 2000; Murray et al., 2002), it does not exhibit good specificity for predicting PTSD (see Bryant, 2003; Harvey & Bryant, 1998, 1999; Zoellner, Jaycox, Watlington, & Foa, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodDissociative tendencies and dissociative disorders
Kihlstrom, J. F., Glisky, M. L., & Angiulo, M. J. (1994) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.103.1.117 · Cited by 247 · cited 1×
“Trait dissociation implies that the tendency to dissociate is a stable characteristic that exists similarly pre- and post-trauma and may be a vulnerability factor for PTSD (Bryant, 2007 ; Kihlstrom, Glisky, & Angiulo, 1994 ).”
BackgroundAutobiographical memory for trauma: update on four controversies
Brewin, C. R. (2007) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210701256423 · Cited by 242 · cited 1×
“As noted by Brewin ( 2007 ), assessment of central versus peripheral details in traumatic events, which are often complex and prolonged, is challenging.”
BackgroundMarmar, C. R., Weiss, D. S., Metzler, T. J., Delucchi, K., Best, S. R., & WENTWORTH, K. A. (1999) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-199901000-00004 · Cited by 221 · cited 1×
“…studies suggest that peritraumatic dissociation predicts PTSD over time (e.g., Birmes et al., 2003; Ehlers, Mayou, & Bryant, 1998; Holen, 1991; Marmar et al., 1999; Murray, Ehlers, & Mayou, 2002; Schafer, Barkmann, Riedesser, & Schulte-Markwort, 2004; Shalev & Freedman, 2005; Ursano et al.,…”
Emotional Dissociation in Response to Trauma: An Information-Processing Approach
Foa, E. B., & Hearst-Ikeda, D. (1996) · Handbook of Dissociation · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0310-5_10 · Cited by 210 · cited 6×
“Further, avoidance is thought to be associated with dissociation, as dissociation may help avoid painful memories and emotions (e.g., Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996; Foa & Riggs, 1993; van der Kolk et al., 1996; Wagner & Linehan, 1998).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTrauma narratives in posttraumatic stress disorder: A review
O'Kearney, R., & Perrott, K. (2006) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20099 · Cited by 210
Halligan, S., Clark, D., & Ehlers, A. (2002) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0005-7916(02)00014-9 · Cited by 209 · cited 1×
“In the cross-sectional analyses individuals reporting higher peritraumatic dissociation on the State Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ) also reported higher meta-memory disorganisation on the five-item Trauma Memory Questionnaire (TMQ; Halligan, Clark, & Ehlers, 2002 ).”
Assessing acute stress disorder: Psychometric properties of a structured clinical interview.
Bryant, R. A., Harvey, A. G., Dang, S. T., & Sackville, T. (1998) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/1040-3590.10.3.215 · Cited by 208
Harvey, A. G., & Bryant, R. A. (2000) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.4.626 · Cited by 207 · cited 3×
“However, recollections of peritraumatic reactions are often inconsistent over time and are potentially biased by current symptoms (Harvey & Bryant, 2000; Southwick, Morgan, Nicolaou, & Charney, 1997; Zoellner, Sacks, & Foa, 2001).”
BackgroundBirmes, P., Brunet, A., Carreras, D., Ducassé, J.-L., Charlet, J.-P., Lauque, D., Sztulman, H., & Schmitt, L. (2003) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.7.1337 · Cited by 200
Debunking Myths about Trauma and Memory
McNally, R. J. (2005) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674370505001302 · Cited by 195 · cited 2×
“Furthermore, the reconstructive, changing nature of memory (e.g., Schacter, 1996) challenges the notion that fragmentation is unique to trauma, as it is expected that all memories will be recounted with varying detail and coherence over time (McNally, 2005).”
BackgroundPorter, S., & Birt, A. R. (2001) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.766 · Cited by 193 · cited 3×
“Four studies (Buck, Kindt, van den Hout, Steens, & Linders, 2006 ; Geraerts et al, 2007 ; Halligan, Michael, Wilhem, Clark, & Ehlers, 2006; Porter & Birt, 2001 ) did not report direct relationships between dissociation and fragmentation and were excluded.”
Harvey, A. G., & Bryant, R. A. (1999) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.67.6.985 · Cited by 191
Harvey, A. G., & Bryant, R. A. (1999) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.67.6.985 · Cited by 191 · cited 1×
“Consistent with these later findings, although acute stress disorder (ASD), a disorder characterised by dissociative symptoms during or immediately following a traumatic event, is associated with PTSD (eg, Creamer, O'Donnell, & Pattison, 2004 ; Harvey & Bryant, 2000 ; Murray et al, 2002 ), it does not exhibit good spe…”
ResultPredictors of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: A prospective study
Freedman, S. A., Brandes, D., Peri, T., & Shalev, A. Y. (1999) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.174.4.353 · Cited by 186
Briere, J. (2006) · Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000198139.47371.54 · Cited by 175 · cited 2×
“A parsimonious explanation might be that both are better accounted for by a third factor, such as arousal, time since trauma, disclosure, cognitive ability, or data driven processing (Briere, 2006; Bryant, 2007; Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004).”
Peritraumatic Dissociation and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Following Motor Vehicle Accidents
Ursano, R. J., Fullerton, C. S., Epstein, R. S., Crowley, B., Vance, K., Kao, T., & Baum, A. E. (1999) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.156.11.1808 · Cited by 174
Resick, P. A., Nishith, P., & Griffin, M. G. (2003) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852900018605 · Cited by 163
Marshall, G. N., & Schell, T. L. (2002) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.111.4.626 · Cited by 162 · cited 2×
“Investigations of specificity and sensitivity find that, although dissociation is commonly reported in survivors of trauma, it is not necessary for the development of PTSD (Briere, 2006; Holen, 1991; Marshall & Schell, 2002).”
Posttraumatic stress disorder : issues and controversies
Rosen, G. M. (2004) · Cited by 144
Does dissociation further our understanding of PTSD?
Bryant, R. A. (2007) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.09.012 · Cited by 143 · cited 10×
“Trait dissociation implies that the tendency to dissociate is a stable characteristic that exists similarly pre- and post-trauma and may be a vulnerability factor for PTSD (Bryant, 2007; Kihlstrom, Glisky, & Angiulo, 1994).”
InfluentialHoleva, V., & Tarrier, N. (2001) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3999(01)00256-2 · Cited by 142 · cited 1×
“…2002; Schafer, Barkmann, Riedesser, & Schulte-Markwort, 2004; Shalev & Freedman, 2005; Ursano et al., 1999); however, others do not (Freedman, Brandes, Peri, & Shalev, 1999; Holeva & Tarrier, 2001; Marshall & Schnell, 2002; Marx & Sloan, 2005; Mellman, David, Bustamante, Fins, & Esposito, 2001).”
The organisation and content of trauma memories in survivors of road traffic accidents
Jones, C., Harvey, A. G., & Brewin, C. R. (2007) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.02.004 · Cited by 141 · cited 8×
“Other clinical samples produced either mixed findings (Jones et al., 2007; Zoellner et al., 2002) or findings actually in the opposite direction (Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Murray et al.”
InfluentialPsychological Processes Related to Recovery from a Trauma and an Effective Treatment for PTSD
FOA, E. B. (1997) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48295.x · Cited by 139 · cited 1×
“As discussed, dissociation and memory fragmentation figure prominently in several current theories of PTSD (e.g., Brewin, 2001; Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Foa, 1997; van der Kolk, 1987).”
The Psychobiology of Traumatic Memory
van der Kolk, B. A., Burbridge, J. A., & Suzuki, J. (1997) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48272.x · Cited by 137
Rubin, D. C., Feldman, M. E., & Beckham, J. C. (2004) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.950 · Cited by 132 · cited 15×
“…(van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995), while four studies, three with clinical samples, produced mixed findings (Kindt et al., 2005; Peace et al., 2008; Rubin et al., 2004; van der Hart et al., 2005) and three studies produced no significant findings or findings opposite to prediction (Byrne et al.,…”
InfluentialHetzel‐Riggin, M. D., & McCanne, T. R. (2005) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.11.008 · Cited by 130 · cited 1×
“The majority of cross-sectional, retrospective studies suggest that peritraumatic dissociation predicts PTSD (Berg, Grieger, & Spira, 2005; Bremner et al., 1992; Hetzel & McCanne, 2005; Marmar et al., 1994; Tichenor, Marmar, Weiss, Metzler, & Ronfeldt, 1996; Weiss et al., 1995).”
Shobe, K. K., & Kihlstorm, J. F. (1997) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep11512658 · Cited by 130 · cited 2×
“Distress or arousal during memory encoding has been posited to affect memory fragmentation (eg, Shobe & Kihlstrom, 1997 ).”
Peritraumatic dissociation as a predictor of post-traumatic stress disorder: a critical review
Candel, I., & Merckelbach, H. (2004) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2003.09.012 · Cited by 130 · cited 3×
“Furthermore, dissociation is reported after both aversive and pleasant events (Candel & Merckelbach, 2004), casting doubt on dissociation as unique to trauma.”
InfluentialPeritraumatic dissociation and posttraumatic stress after pregnancy loss: a prospective study
Engelhard, I. M., van den Hout, M. A., Kindt, M., Arntz, A., & Schouten, E. (2003) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00130-9 · Cited by 128
Tromp, S., Koss, M. P., Figueredo, A. J., & Tharan, M. (1995) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1007/bf02102891 · Cited by 126
Tichenor, V., Marmar, C. R., Weiss, D. S., Metzler, T. J., & al, E. (1996) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.64.5.1054 · Cited by 125
Koss, M. P., Figueredo, A. J., Bell, I. R., Tharan, M., & Tromp, S. (1996) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.105.3.421 · Cited by 122
Complexity of trauma narratives as an index of fragmented memory in PTSD: a critical analysis
Gray, M. J., & Lombardo, T. W. (2001) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.840 · Cited by 118 · cited 2×
“Gray and Lombardo ( 2001 ) showed that findings of greater fragmentation for trauma narratives of individuals with PTSD disappeared when controlling for this using a vocabulary task, suggesting that fragmentation may be an artifact of lower verbal ability.”
Comparisons of memories for traumatic events and other experiences
Byrne, C. A., Hyman, I. E., & Scott, K. L. (2001) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.837 · Cited by 112
Panic symptoms during trauma and acute stress disorder
Bryant, R. A., & Panasetis, P. (2001) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(00)00086-3 · Cited by 109
Bremner, J. D., & Rush, A. J. (2025) · Psychopharmacology Bulletin · doi:10.64719/pb.4180 · Cited by 106
The Inferential and Experiential Bases of Metamemory
Schwartz, B. L., Benjamin, A. S., & Bjork, R. A. (1997) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772899 · Cited by 106 · cited 2×
“Specifically, meta-memory assesses perception (Schwartz, Benjamin, & Bjork, 1997 ), rather than actual memory.”
Trauma, Dissociation, and Memory
Spiegel, D. (1997) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48282.x · Cited by 106 · cited 3×
“…in organising the memory, which subsequently lead to both disorganised, disintegrated intentional narrative recall and frequent, automatic memory intrusions (e.g., Brewin, Dalgleish, & Joseph, 1996; Ehlers, Hackmann, & Michael, 2004; Foa & HearstIkeda, 1996; Foa & Riggs, 1993; Spiegel, 1997).”
Creamer, M., O’Donnell, M. L., & Pattison, P. (2004) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(03)00141-4 · Cited by 105
Predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder following severe injury
Mellman, T. A., David, D., Bustamante, V., Fins, A. I., & Esposito, K. F. (2001) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.1071 · Cited by 105
Gershuny, B. S., Cloitre, M., & Otto, M. W. (2003) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00134-6 · Cited by 102
Trauma and memory : clinical and legal controversies
Appelbaum, P. S., Uyehara, L. A., & Elin, M. R. (1997) · Cited by 94
Tichenor, V., Marmar, C. R., Weiss, D. S., et al. (1996) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.64.5.1054 · Cited by 94
Peritraumatic and persistent panic attacks in acute stress disorder
Nixon, R. D. V., & Bryant, R. A. (2003) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(03)00150-5 · Cited by 90
Dr. Southwick and Colleagues Reply
Southwick, S. M., Morgan, C. A., & Charney, D. S. (1997) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.154.11.1629 · Cited by 89 · cited 2×
“Memories change over time (e.g., Hepp et al., 2006; Southwick et al., 1997; Zoellner et al., 2001) and time since the trauma may degrade memory traces (e.g., McNally, 2005), resulting in recounting that appears fragmented.”
BackgroundInconsistency in reporting potentially traumatic events
Hepp, U., Gamma, A., Milos, G., Eich, D., Ajdacic-Gross, V., Rössler, W., Angst, J., & Schnyder, U. (2006) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.104.008102 · Cited by 79 · cited 2×
“Memories change over time (eg, Hepp et al, 2006 ; Southwick et al, 1997 ; Zoellner et al, 2001 ) and time since the trauma may degrade memory traces (eg, McNally, 2005 ), resulting in recounting that appears fragmented.”
Peritraumatic versus persistent dissociation in acute stress disorder
Panasetis, P., & Bryant, R. A. (2003) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/b:jots.0000004079.74606.ba · Cited by 77 · cited 2×
“By hindering processing, persistent dissociation, similar to other types of cognitive and behavioural avoidance (Foa & Hearst-Ikeda, 1996 ; Panasetis & Bryant, 2003 ; Wagner & Linehan, 1998 ) may contribute to both memory fragmentation and PTSD development.”
Kindt, M., & van den Hout, M. (2003) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00135-8 · Cited by 77
Krystal, J. H., Woods, S. W., Hill, C. L., & Charney, D. S. (1991) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0010-440x(91)90026-9 · Cited by 73 · cited 1×
“Dissociation may be more of a consequence than a cause, related to high levels of arousal during trauma (Krystal, Woods, Hill, & Charney, 1991 ; Marmar et al, 1997 ).”
BackgroundCognitive processes in dissociation: Comment on Giesbrecht et al. (2008).
Bremner, J. D. (2010) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0018021 · Cited by 72 · cited 2×
“In contrast, a response by Bremner ( 2010 ) refutes this claim and asserts a persistent and convincing relationship between trauma, dissociation, and memory errors.”
BackgroundPeritraumatic dissociative experiences, trauma narratives, and trauma pathology
Zoellner, L. A., Alvarez‐Conrad, J., & Foa, E. B. (2002) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/a:1014383228149 · Cited by 71 · cited 11×
“…objective fragmentation (Buck, Kindt, & Van den Hout, 2006; Jones et al., 2007; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Zoellner et al., 2002), with only two studies out of seven finding consistent positive relationships (Halligan et al., 2003; Harvey & Bryant, 1999).”
InfluentialSelf-citationHalligan, S. L., Michael, T., Wilhelm, F. H., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2006) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20167 · Cited by 63
Dissociation in children's trauma narratives: An exploratory investigation
Kenardy, J., Smith, A., Spence, S. H., Lilley, P.-R., Newcombe, P., Dob, R., & Robinson, S. (2007) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.05.007 · Cited by 63 · cited 3×
“Studies with adolescents/children were excluded because memory processes, especially narrative memories, may be different in children (eg, Kenardy et al, 2007 ; Pynoos, Steinberg, & Aronson, 1997 ), warranting a separate analysis.”
KAUFMAN, M. L., KIMBLE, M. O., KALOUPEK, D. G., MCTEAGUE, L. M., BACHRACH, P., FORTI, A. M., & KEANE, T. M. (2002) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-200203000-00005 · Cited by 63 · cited 1×
“…aversive memories (e.g., Horowitz, 1986) and may reduce distress and physiological arousal, although support for this hypothesis is inconsistent (Bryant, Harvey, Guthrie, & Moulds, 2000; Fikretoglu et al., 2006; Griffin, Resick, & Mechanic, 1997; Kaufman et al., 2002; Nixon & Bryant, 2005).”
ResultThe Prevalence and Longitudinal Course of PTSD: Implications for the Neurobiological Models of PTSD
MCFARLANE, A. C. (1997) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48265.x · Cited by 60
Kindt, M., Van den Hout, M., & Buck, N. (2005) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2004.11.005 · Cited by 60 · cited 31×
“Overall, higher peritraumatic dissociation was inconsistently associated with rater-coded or objective fragmentation (Buck, Kindt, & Van den Hout, 2006; Jones et al., 2007; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Moulds & Bryant, 2005; Zoellner et al., 2002), with only two studies out of seven finding consiste…”
InfluentialPeace, K. A., Porter, S., & Brinke, L. T. (2008) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210701363583 · Cited by 58
Perceptual and conceptual processing as predictors of treatment outcome in PTSD
Kindt, M., Buck, N. M. L., Arntz, A. R., & Soeter, M. (2007) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.10.002 · Cited by 58
Dissociative experiences are related to commissions in emotional memory
Candel, I., Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., & Kuijpers, M. (2003) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(03)00016-0 · Cited by 58
Memory Fragmentation in Dissociative Identity Disorder
van der Hart, O., Bolt, H., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2005) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1300/j229v06n01_04 · Cited by 54 · cited 7×
“…Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Engelhard et al., 2003; Halligan et al., 2003; Hardy et al., 2009; Murray et al., 2002; van der Hart et al., 2005; van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995); whereas others use multiitem scales (Byrne et al., 2001; Halligan et al., 2003; Harvey & Bryant,…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialTraumatic memories of war veterans: Not so special after all
Geraerts, E., Kozarić‐Kovačić, D., Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., Peraica, T., Jelícic, M., & Candel, I. (2006) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2006.02.005 · Cited by 49 · cited 2×
“Four studies (Buck, Kindt, van den Hout, Steens, & Linders, 2006 ; Geraerts et al, 2007 ; Halligan, Michael, Wilhem, Clark, & Ehlers, 2006; Porter & Birt, 2001 ) did not report direct relationships between dissociation and fragmentation and were excluded.”
Giesbrecht, T., Lynn, S. J., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Merckelbach, H. L. G. J. (2010) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0018068 · Cited by 46 · cited 1×
“However, Giesbrecht and colleagues ( 2008 , 2010 ) recently reviewed the empirical evidence linking dissociation to diverse cognitive processes including fantasy proneness, suggestibility, and avoidant memory processing (eg, fragmentation, commission errors, overgeneralised memory) and concluded that evidence supporti…”
BackgroundHolen, A. (1991) · Stress Medicine · doi:10.1002/smi.2460070104 · Cited by 45 · cited 2×
“…some prospective studies suggest that peritraumatic dissociation predicts PTSD over time (e.g., Birmes et al., 2003; Ehlers, Mayou, & Bryant, 1998; Holen, 1991; Marmar et al., 1999; Murray, Ehlers, & Mayou, 2002; Schafer, Barkmann, Riedesser, & Schulte-Markwort, 2004; Shalev & Freedman, 2005;…”
Physiological arousal and dissociation in acute trauma victims during trauma narratives
Nixon, R. D. V., Bryant, R. A., Moulds, M. L., Felmingham, K. L., & Mastrodomenico, J. (2005) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20019 · Cited by 44 · cited 2×
“…aversive memories (e.g., Horowitz, 1986) and may reduce distress and physiological arousal, although support for this hypothesis is inconsistent (Bryant, Harvey, Guthrie, & Moulds, 2000; Fikretoglu et al., 2006; Griffin, Resick, & Mechanic, 1997; Kaufman et al., 2002; Nixon & Bryant, 2005).”
Fikretoglu, D., Brunet, A., Best, S., Metzler, T., Delucchi, K., Weiss, D. S., Fagan, J., & Marmar, C. (2006) · Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000244563.22864.f1 · Cited by 42 · cited 2×
“, Horowitz, 1986) and may reduce distress and physiological arousal, although support for this hypothesis is inconsistent (Bryant, Harvey, Guthrie, & Moulds, 2000; Fikretoglu et al., 2006; Griffin, Resick, & Mechanic, 1997; Kaufman et al., 2002; Nixon & Bryant, 2005).”
On the Uniqueness of Trauma Memories in PTSD
Zoellner, L. A., & Bittenger, J. N. (2004) · Posttraumatic Stress Disorder · doi:10.1002/9780470713570.ch8 · Cited by 37 · cited 4×
“Several reviews have critically examined the relationship between memory fragmentation and PTSD (see O’Kearney & Perrott, 2006; Zoellner & Bittinger, 2004).”
InfluentialSelf-citationPerceptual Memory Representations and Memory Fragmentation as Predictors of Post-Trauma Symptoms
Buck, N., Kindt, M., van den Hout, M., Steens, L., & Linders, C. (2006) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465806003468 · Cited by 36 · cited 1×
“Four studies (Buck, Kindt, van den Hout, Steens, & Linders, 2006 ; Geraerts et al, 2007 ; Halligan, Michael, Wilhem, Clark, & Ehlers, 2006; Porter & Birt, 2001 ) did not report direct relationships between dissociation and fragmentation and were excluded.”
Frueh, B. C., Johnson, D. E., Smith, D. W., & Williams, M. A. (1996) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1007/bf02103674 · Cited by 35 · cited 1×
“At least one measure of trait dissociation (ie, DES) has been shown to be related to intelligence, with greater dissocation being associated with lower intelligence (Freuh et al, 1996 ).”
Stability of emotions for traumatic memories in acute and chronic PTSD
Zoellner, L. A., Sacks, M. B., & Foa, E. B. (2001) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(00)00050-4 · Cited by 34 · cited 3×
“Memories change over time (e.g., Hepp et al., 2006; Southwick et al., 1997; Zoellner et al., 2001) and time since the trauma may degrade memory traces (e.g., McNally, 2005), resulting in recounting that appears fragmented.”
Self-citationHardy, A., Young, K., & Holmes, E. A. (2009) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210903081835 · Cited by 34 · cited 8×
“…association: Buck, Kindt, & Van den Hout, 2006; Kindt & van den Hout, 2003; Kindt et al., 2005; Engelhard et al., 2003; Halligan et al., 2003; Hardy et al., 2009; Murray et al., 2002; van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995; van der Hart et al., 2005) than multi-item scales (no strong association: Byrne…”
InfluentialHopper, J. W., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203725276-3 · Cited by 31
Retrieving, Assessing, and Classifying Traumatic Memories
Hopper, J. W., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2001) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1300/j146v04n02_03 · Cited by 22
Traumatic memories in acute stress disorder: An analysis of narratives before and after treatment
Moulds, M. L., & Bryant, R. A. (2005) · Clinical Psychologist · doi:10.1080/13284200500116971 · Cited by 19 · cited 8×
“Moulds and Bryant (2005) compared pre- and post-cognitive-behavioural treatment changes in subjectively coded narrative disorganisation in a small sample (n 15) immediately following MVA or non-sexual assault.”
InfluentialAre the dissociative criteria in ASD useful?
Zoellner, L. A., Jaycox, L. H., Watlington, C. G., & Foa, E. B. (2003) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/a:1024461801508 · Cited by 18 · cited 1×
“Consistent with these later findings, although acute stress disorder (ASD), a disorder characterised by dissociative symptoms during or immediately following a traumatic event, is associated with PTSD (eg, Creamer, O'Donnell, & Pattison, 2004 ; Harvey & Bryant, 2000 ; Murray et al, 2002 ), it does not exhibit good spe…”
Self-citationSchäfer, I., Barkmann, C., Riedesser, P., & Schulte‐Markwort, M. (2004) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1300/j229v05n04_05 · Cited by 18
Traumatic Experiences: The Early Organization Of Memory In School-Age Children And Adolescents
Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., & Aronson, L. (1997) · Trauma And Memory · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195100655.003.0017 · Cited by 15
Psychiatric Symptoms and Cognitive Appraisal following the Near Sinking of a Research Submarine
Berg, J. S., Grieger, T. A., & Spira, J. L. (2005) · Military Medicine · doi:10.7205/milmed.170.1.44 · Cited by 12
Recent Developments in the Neurobiology of Dissociation
Krystal, J. H., Bennett, A., Bremner, J. D., Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (1996) · Handbook of Dissociation · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0310-5_8 · Cited by 11
More Evidence for the Role of Persistent Dissociation in PTSD
Ehlers, A. (2006) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.2006.163.6.1112 · Cited by 9 · cited 3×
“In contrast, state dissociation occurs in response to situations and interferes with processing (e.g., Briere, Scott, & Weathers, 2005; Ehlers, 2006).”
Effects of State Dissociation on Objectively and Subjectively assessed Memory Disturbances
Buck, N. M. L., Kindt, M., & van den Hout, M. (2006) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465806002827 · Cited by 8
More Evidence for the Role of Persistent Dissociation in PTSD
Ehlers, A. (2006) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.6.1112 · Cited by 4
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Zoladz, P. R., & Diamond, D. M. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.024 · Cited by 339
“…an overall conextual framework (van Der et al., 2005a; van Der and Nijenhuis, 001; van Der, 1986; Van der Kolk, 1997; Van der Kolk and Fisler, 995; Bedard-Gilligan and Zoellner, 2012), thereby contributing to oorer extinction of the conditioned fear memory of the trauma Rougemont-Bucking et al.,…”
Lynn, S. J., Lilienfeld, S. O., Merckelbach, H., Giesbrecht, T., McNally, R. J., Loftus, E. F., Bruck, M., Garry, M., & Malaktaris, A. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0035570 · Cited by 152
An empirical review of potential mediators and mechanisms of prolonged exposure therapy
Cooper, A. A., Clifton, E. G., & Feeny, N. C. (2017) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.07.003 · Cited by 133
“Two major reviews of the PTSD trauma narrative literature have concluded that inconsistent measurement and terminology impairs the ability to draw strong conclusions about ties between trauma, PTSD and indices of memory disruption (O’Kearney & Perrott, 2006; Bedard-Gilligan & Zoellner, 2012).”
BackgroundFragmented Sleep, Fragmented Mind
der Kloet, D. V. H., Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., Giesbrecht, T., & Lynn, S. J. (2012) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691612437597 · Cited by 133
Holley, A. L., Wilson, A. C., Noel, M. E., & Palermo, T. M. (2016) · European Journal of Pain · doi:10.1002/ejp.879 · Cited by 104
“Given depressive symptoms are elevated in youth with chronic pain (Blaauw et al., 2014; Coenders et al., 2014), and predict pain persisting into adulthood (Horst et al., 2014), we posit that depression in youth may confer risk for PTSS and pain-related disability.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Bedard-Gilligan, M., & Zoellner, L. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- ORCID
- Zoellner, Lori A.
- Venue
- Memory
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2012-04
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 277-299
- ISSN
- 0965-8211 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0686
- PMC
- PMC3310188
- OpenAlex
- W2133489342
- Semantic Scholar
- ee94b243c79280f91f0c92428c6c68c6a819b6c4
- Cited by
- 116
- References
- 152
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 13.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Memory (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (F31MH074225, R01MH066347)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Keywords
- post-traumatic stress disorder, peritraumatic dissociation, trait dissociation, memory fragmentation, metamemory, self-reported memory
- MeSH terms
- Dissociative Disorders, Humans, Life Change Events, Memory, Memory Disorders, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Observer Variation
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