Cited by 345Substance Abuse Treatment and OutcomesAlcohol Consumption and Health EffectsPsychometric Methodologies and Testing

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ALCOHOL USE AMONG SWEDES AND A PSYCHOMETRIC EVALUATION OF THE ALCOHOL USE DISORDERS IDENTIFICATION TEST

Bergman, H.·2002·Alcohol and Alcoholism

DOI 10.1093/alcalc/37.3.245

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Abstract

The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) was completed by 997 persons randomly selected from the general Swedish population (80% response rate). Eighteen per cent of the men and 5% of the women had hazardous or harmful alcohol use according to the > or =8 score criterion. AUDIT scores decreased with increasing age in both genders. Women are more sensitive to alcohol than men and when the cut-off score was set to > or =6, the female prevalence of hazardous or harmful alcohol use increased to nearly 11%. The 'binge drinking' question explained half of the total AUDIT variance and is thus the best item indicator of hazardous or harmful alcohol use in the test. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses revealed two AUDIT basic factors, the first three items defining a 'hazardous consumption' factor and the other seven items an 'alcohol-related problems' factor. Both the internal and test- retest reliability of the Swedish version of AUDIT were satisfactory. A table for converting raw scores to non-normalized T-scores for each combination of gender and three age intervals is presented.

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Mathiesen, E. F., Nome, S., Eisemann, M. R., & Richter, J. (2012) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-011-0080-8 · Cited by 54
Dialectical Behavior Therapy for Men With Borderline Personality Disorder and Antisocial Behavior: A Clinical Trial
Wetterborg, D., Dehlbom, P., Långström, N., Andersson, G., Fruzzetti, A. E., & Enebrink, P. (2018) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi_2018_32_379 · Cited by 53
Revising the Cannabis Use Disorders Identification Test (CUDIT) by means of Item Response Theory
Annaheim, B., Scotto, T. J., & Gmel, G. E. (2010) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.308 · Cited by 52
“Empirical evidence points to mostly two-factor (drinking behaviour and adverse consequences, e.g. Bergman and Källmén, 2002; Kim et al., 2008; Shields et al., 2004), but also onefactor (Carey et al., 2003) and four-factor models (frequency, quantity of use, binge-drinking and problems: Gmel et al.,…”
Background
Personality traits and mental health of severe drunk drivers in Sweden
Hubicka, B., Källmén, H., Hiltunen, A. J., & Bergman, H. (2009) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-009-0111-8 · Cited by 52
Self-citation
When social anxiety co-occurs with substance use: does an impulsive social anxiety subtype explain this unexpected relationship?
Nicholls, J., Staiger, P., Williams, J. S., Richardson, B., & Kambouropoulos, N. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.08.040 · Cited by 47
“Firstly, if, as researchers have previously contended, social anxiety precedes the onset substance misuse (Lipsitz and Schneier, 2000; Buckner et al., 2008), it is possible that those who fit the approachmotivated social anxiety subtype are at greater risk of developing co-occurring substance use owing to specific vul…”
Background
Constructing a theory- and evidence-based treatment rationale for complex ehealth interventions: development of an online alcohol intervention using an intervention mapping approach.
Brendryen, H., Johansen, A., Nesvåg, S., Kok, G., & Duckert, F. (2013) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/resprot.2371 · Cited by 48
“However, in Sweden, a comparable nation with regard to alcohol consumption, the prevalence of at-risk drinking has been reported as 18% for men and 5% for women [36].”
Alcohol Use and Hazardous Drinking among Medical Specialists
Joos, L., Glazemakers, I., & Dom, G. (2013) · European Addiction Research · doi:10.1159/000341993 · Cited by 50
Factor Structure of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) for Men and Women in Different Age Groups
von der Pahlen, B., Santtila, P. O., Witting, K., Varjonen, M., Jern, P., Johansson, A., & Sandnabba, N. K. (2008) · Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs · doi:10.15288/jsad.2008.69.616 · Cited by 51
Internet‐based therapy versus face‐to‐face therapy for alcohol use disorder, a randomized controlled non‐inferiority trial
Johansson, M., Sinadinovic, K., Gajecki, M., Lindner, P., Berman, A. H., Hermansson, U., & Andréasson, S. (2020) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15270 · Cited by 52
“AUDIT is a 10‐item instrument that has been validated in Swedish and via computer [31,32].”
Method
Cross-Cultural Patterns in College Student Drinking and its Consequences—A Comparison between the USA and Sweden
Ståhlbrandt, H., Andersson, C. R., Johnsson, K., Tollison, S. J., Berglund, M., & Larimer, M. E. (2008) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agn055 · Cited by 50
“In the USA, ∼63% of the population are current drinkers (NIAAA, 2004), compared to ∼87% in Sweden (Bergman and Källmén, 2002).”
Background
Rash impulsiveness and reward sensitivity in relation to risky drinking by university students: Potential roles of frontal systems
Lyvers, M., Duff, H., Basch, V., & Edwards, M. S. (2012) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.03.028 · Cited by 49
“Temporal stability is also high ranging from r=.87 over one week (Rubin et al., 2006) to r=.93 and .95 over four weeks (Bergman & Källmén, 2002; Dybek et al., 2006).”
Background
An Epidemiological Study of ADHD, Substance Use, and Comorbid Problems in Incarcerated Women in Sweden
Konstenius, M., Larsson, H., Lundholm, L., Philips, B., van de Glind, G., Jayaram-Lindström, N., & Franck, J. (2015) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712451126 · Cited by 54
“Alcohol consumption was measured using the Swedish version of the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT; Bergman & Kallmen, 2002; Saunders, Aasland, Babor, de la Fuente, & Grant, 1993).”
Method
Intimate partner violence and help-seeking – a cross-sectional study of women in Sweden
Dufort, M., Gumpert, C. H., & Stenbacka, M. (2013) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-866 · Cited by 47
“95) [38].”
Is Pregnancy the Time to Change Alcohol Consumption Habits in France?
de Chazeron, I., Llorca, P., Ughetto, S., Vendittelli, F., Boussiron, D., Sapin, V., Coudoré, F., & Lemery, D. J. (2008) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00646.x · Cited by 47
“In reference to the AUDIT cut-off of 6 for detecting hazardous or harmful alcohol for nonpregnant women (Bergman and Kallmen, 2002), 9 individuals (2.1”
BackgroundInfluential
Secondary prevention of hazardous alcohol consumption in psychiatric out-patients: a randomised controlled study
Eberhard, S., Nordstrom, G., Höglund, P., & Öjehagen, A. (2009) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-009-0023-7 · Cited by 47
Internet-based assessment and self-monitoring of problematic alcohol and drug use
Sinadinovic, K., Berman, A. H., Hasson, D., & Wennberg, P. (2010) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.12.021 · Cited by 46
Cross-Cultural Adaptation and Psychometric Properties of the AUDIT and CAGE Questionnaires in Tanzanian Swahili for a Traumatic Brain Injury Population
Vissoci, J. R. N., Hertz, J., El-Gabri, D., Andrade Do Nascimento, J. R., Pestillo De Oliveira, L., Mmbaga, B. T., Mvungi, M., & Staton, C. A. (2018) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agx058 · Cited by 40
“However, multiple previous psychometric analyses have shown that AUDIT’s internal structure is most consistent with a 2D model (Bergman and Kallmen, 2002; Cook et al., 2011).”
Method
Single-session motivational interviewing for drug detoxification inpatients: effects on self-efficacy, stages of change and substance use
Berman, A. H., Forsberg, L., Durbeej, N., Källmén, H., & Hermansson, U. (2010) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826080903452488 · Cited by 45
“Alcohol use was measured using the 10-item self-report Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT; Bergman and Källmén, 2002;”
Method
Naltrexone in compulsive sexual behavior disorder: a feasibility study of twenty men
Savard, J., Öberg, K. G., Chatzittofis, A., Dhejne, C., Arver, S., & Jokinen, J. (2020) · The Journal of Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2020.04.318 · Cited by 45
Alcohol habits in Sweden during 1997–2005 measured with the AUDIT
Källmén, H., Wennberg, P., Berman, A. H., & Bergman, H. (2007) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039480701773303 · Cited by 44
“The Swedish version of the test has been described earlier by Bergman & Källmén (6).”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Stress and hazardous alcohol use: Associations with early dropout from university
Andersson, C., Johnsson, K. O., Berglund, M., & Öjehagen, A. (2009) · Scandinavian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1177/1403494809344359 · Cited by 43
Disinhibition and reward sensitivity in relation to alcohol consumption by university undergraduates
Lyvers, M., Czerczyk, C., Girardi, A. M., & Lodge, P. (2009) · Addiction Research & Theory · doi:10.3109/16066350802404158 · Cited by 43
“Recent studies have shown that the AUDIT demonstrates construct, discriminate, and concurrent validity (Bergman and Kallmen 2002; Shields and Caruso 2004).”
Background
Internet-based emotional awareness and expression therapy for somatic symptom disorder: A randomized controlled trial
Maroti, D., Lumley, M. A., Schubiner, H., Lilliengren, P., Bileviciute-Ljungar, I., Ljótsson, B., & Johansson, R. (2022) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2022.111068 · Cited by 40
Effects of Internet-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Harmful Alcohol Use and Alcohol Dependence as Self-help or With Therapist Guidance: Three-Armed Randomized Trial
Johansson, M., Berman, A. H., Sinadinovic, K., Lindner, P., Hermansson, U., & Andréasson, S. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/29666 · Cited by 50
“AUDIT [38] is a 10-item instrument that covers both alcohol consumption and problems and has been validated in Swedish and via the computer [51,52].”
Alcohol intoxicated eyewitnesses' memory of intimate partner violence
Karlén, M. H., af Hjelmsäter, E. R., Fahlke, C., Granhag, P. A., & Gordh, A. S. (2014) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2014.951644 · Cited by 40
“This is likely to stem from a gender-specific reaction to this alcohol dose, since women have a relatively greater vulnerability to short-term as well as to long-term effects of alcohol (Andreano & Cahill, 2009; Bergman & Källmén, 2002; Mumenthaler, Taylor, O’Hara, & Yesevage, 1999).”
Background
Web-Based Self-Help for Problematic Alcohol Use: a Large Naturalistic Study
Johansson, M., Sinadinovic, K., Hammarberg, A., Sundström, C., Hermansson, U., Andréasson, S., & Berman, A. H. (2016) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-016-9618-z · Cited by 47
“They were then directed to a screening page where they were required to indicate their gender and age and fill in Web-based Swedish versions of the Alcohol Use Identification Test (AUDIT [22]) and the first question of the Drug Use Disorders Identification Test (DUDIT [23]); registrants who scored >0 filled in all 11…”
Method
Alcohol-induced upper airway symptoms: prevalence and co-morbidity
Nihlen, U., Greiff, L. J., Nyberg, P., Persson, C. G. A., & Andersson, M. (2005) · Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2004.11.010 · Cited by 39
Measurement invariance of the alcohol use disorders identification test: Establishing its factor structure in different settings and across gender
Möhring, A., Krause, K., Guertler, D., Bischof, G., Hapke, U., Freyer‐Adam, J., Baumann, S., Batra, A., Rumpf, H., Ulbricht, S., et al. (2018) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.05.002 · Cited by 39
Alexithymia in relation to parental alcoholism, everyday frontal lobe functioning and alcohol consumption in a non-clinical sample
Lyvers, M., Onuoha, R., Thorberg, F. A., & Samios, C. (2011) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.10.012 · Cited by 39
Effects of internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy on use of child sexual abuse material: A randomized placebo-controlled trial on the Darknet
Lätth, J., Landgren, V., McMahan, A., Sparre, C., Eriksson, J., Malki, K., Söderquist, E., Öberg, K. G., Rozental, A., Andersson, G., et al. (2022) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2022.100590 · Cited by 38
“b Positive screening results on the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) (8+ out of 40 points) (Bergman and Källmén, 2002) or the Drug Use Disorder Identification Test (DUDIT) (3+ out of 44 points) (Hildebrand, 2015).”
Method
Comparison of WEB and Interactive Voice Response (IVR) Methods for Delivering Brief Alcohol Interventions to Hazardous-Drinking University Students: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Andersson, C. R. (2015) · European Addiction Research · doi:10.1159/000381017 · Cited by 38
Auricular acupuncture for substance use: a randomized controlled trial of effects on anxiety, sleep, drug use and use of addiction treatment services
Ahlberg, R., Skårberg, K., Brus, O., & Kjellin, L. (2016) · Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1186/s13011-016-0068-z · Cited by 38
“Cases with missing values for up to three BAI items, one ISI item, two AUDIT items and two DUDIT items were included in the analyses.”
MethodInfluential
The role of empowerment and quality of life in depression severity among unemployed people with affective disorders receiving mental healthcare
Johanson, S., & Bejerholm, U. (2017) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2016.1211758 · Cited by 37
“Test-retest and internal reliability are satisfactory.[55] The Swedish version of Adult Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder Self Report Scales (ASRS) [56] was administered to screen for attention and hyperactivity symptoms.”
Method
Tailored internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy for individuals experiencing psychological distress associated with climate change: A pilot randomized controlled trial
Lindhe, N., Bengtsson, A., Byggeth, E., Engström, J., Lundin, M., Ludvigsson, M., Aminoff, V., Berg, M., & Andersson, G. (2023) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2023.104438 · Cited by 45
“However, the cut-off score of 15 has been found to give the highest positive predictive value (Bergman & K ¨ allm ´ en, 2002).”
Concurrent validity of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) in relation to Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) severity levels according to the brief DSM-5 AUD diagnostic assessment screener
Källmén, H., Elgán, T. H., Wennberg, P., & Berman, A. H. (2019) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039488.2019.1642382 · Cited by 37
“Respondents were sent an invitation letter in the spring of 2018 and a postal questionnaire consisting of the Swedish version of the 10-item AUDIT [5,15] and an authorized Swedish translation of the 13-item brief DSM-5 selfreport diagnostic assessment screener [2].”
Method
Population screening of risky alcohol and drug use via Internet and Interactive Voice Response (IVR): A feasibility and psychometric study in a random sample
Sinadinovic, K., Wennberg, P., & Berman, A. H. (2010) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.09.004 · Cited by 36
Adults with mild to moderate depression exhibit more alcohol related problems compared to the general adult population: a cross sectional study
Åhlin, J., Hallgren, M. Å., Öjehagen, A., Källmén, H., & Forsell, Y. (2015) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-015-1837-8 · Cited by 36
“three-factor scale consisting of consumption, dependence and harms [18, 19].”
Long-Term Treatment Outcome in Adult Male Prisoners With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Ginsberg, Y., Långström, N., Larsson, H., & Lindefors, N. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/jcp.0000000000000395 · Cited by 38
Alcohol Habits in Sweden during 1997–2009 with Particular Focus on 2005 and 2009, Assessed with the AUDIT: A Repeated Cross-Sectional Study
Källmén, H., Wennberg, P., Leifman, H., Bergman, H., & Berman, A. H. (2010) · European Addiction Research · doi:10.1159/000322068 · Cited by 35
Self-citation
Exploration of the (Interrater) Reliability and Latent Factor Structure of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and the Drug Use Disorders Identification Test (DUDIT) in a Sample of Dutch Probationers
Hildebrand, M., & Noteborn, M. G. C. (2015) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826084.2014.998238 · Cited by 35
“Interestingly, this two-factor solution is not entirely similar to that generally identified in (a variety of) adult samples (AlMarri et al., 2009; Bergman & Källmén, 2002; Karno et al., 2000; Maisto et al., 2000; Mathew et al., 2010; Shevlin & Smith, 2007; Shields, Guttmannova, & Caruso, 2004;…”
Result
Behavioral couples therapy versus cognitive behavioral therapy for problem gambling: a randomized controlled trial
Nilsson, A., Magnusson, K., Carlbring, P., Andersson, G., & Hellner, C. (2020) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.14900 · Cited by 34
Primary hyperhidrosis: Implications on symptoms, daily life, health and alcohol consumption when treated with botulinum toxin
Shayesteh, A., Boman, J., Janlert, U., Brulin, C., & Nylander, E. (2016) · The Journal of Dermatology · doi:10.1111/1346-8138.13291 · Cited by 34
Anabolic-androgenic steroid users in treatment : social background, drug use patterns, and criminality
Skårberg, K. (2009) · Örebro University Library (Örebro University) · Cited by 34
Self-Reported Needs for Care, Support and Treatment of Persons Who Frequently Visit Psychiatric Emergency Rooms in Sweden
Schmidt, M., Ekstrand, J., & Tops, A. B. (2018) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/01612840.2018.1481471 · Cited by 33
Treating Patients With Co-occurring Autism Spectrum Disorder and Substance Use Disorder: A Clinical Explorative Study
Helverschou, S. B., Brunvold, A. R., & Arnevik, E. A. (2019) · Substance Abuse Research and Treatment · doi:10.1177/1178221819843291 · Cited by 33

Authors: Bergman, H.
Affiliations: Karolinska University Hospital (SE)
Corresponding author: Bergman, H.
Venue: Alcohol and Alcoholism
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2002-05-01
Volume: 37
Issue: 3
Pages: 245-251
ISSN: 0735-0414 (ISSN-L)
1464-3502
DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/37.3.245
OpenAlex: W1995146706
Cited by: 345
References: 34
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 19
FWCI: 3.01
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Alcohol and Alcoholism (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Karolinska Institutet
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
Health Sciences › Medicine › Pathology and Forensic Medicine › Alcohol Consumption and Health Effects
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Keywords: Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, auditing, alcoholism, hazardous drinking, binge drinking, alcohol-related problems, psychometric validation, factor structure, test-retest reliability, gender differences, age differences, Swedish population, screening tool
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Alcohol Drinking, Analysis of Variance, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Psychometrics, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sweden, Alcohol-Related Disorders

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ALCOHOL USE AMONG SWEDES AND A PSYCHOMETRIC EVALUATION OF THE ALCOHOL USE DISORDERS IDENTIFICATION TEST

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