Levels of processing during non-conscious perception: a critical review of visual masking

Kouider, Sid; Dehaene, Stanislas

doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2093

Cited by 835Visual perception and processing mechanismsPhilosophy and Theoretical ScienceNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

Levels of processing during non-conscious perception: a critical review of visual masking

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Kouider, Sid, Dehaene, Stanislas·2007·Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

DOI 10.1098/rstb.2007.2093PMC PMC2430002

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Abstract

Understanding the extent and limits of non-conscious processing is an important step on the road to a thorough understanding of the cognitive and cerebral correlates of conscious perception. In this article, we present a critical review of research on subliminal perception during masking and other related experimental conditions. Although initially controversial, the possibility that a broad variety of processes can be activated by a non-reportable stimulus is now well established. Behavioural findings of subliminal priming indicate that a masked word or digit can have an influence on perceptual, lexical and semantic levels, while neuroimaging directly visualizes the brain activation that it evokes in several cortical areas. This activation is often attenuated under subliminal presentation conditions compared to consciously reportable conditions, but there are sufficiently many exceptions, in paradigms such as the attentional blink, to indicate that high activation, per se , is not a sufficient condition for conscious access to occur. We conclude by arguing that for a stimulus to reach consciousness, two factors are jointly needed: (i) the input stimulus must have enough strength (which can be prevented by masking) and (ii) it must receive top-down attention (which can be prevented by drawing attention to another stimulus or task). This view leads to a distinction between two types of non-conscious processes, which we call subliminal and preconscious. According to us, maintaining this distinction is essential in order to make sense of the growing neuroimaging data on the neural correlates of consciousness.

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Kouider, S., Dehaene, S., Jobert, A., & Bihan, D. L. (2006) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhl110 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Self-citation
Morphology and the internal structure of words
Devlin, J. T., Jamison, H. L., Matthews, P. M., & Gonnerman, L. M. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0403766101 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Attentional Modulation of Unconscious “Automatic” Processes: Evidence from Event-related Potentials in a Masked Priming Paradigm
Kiefer, M., & Brendel, D. (2006) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.2.184 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Unconscious perception revisited
Merikle, P. M. (1982) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03202538 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Realism of confidence in sensory discrimination: The underconfidence phenomenon
Björkman, M., Juslin, P., & Winman, A. (1993) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03206939 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Semantic processing in the neglected visual field: Evidence from a lexical decision task
McGlinchey, R. E., Milberg, W., Verfaellie, M. H., ALEXANDER, M. P., & Kilduff, P. T. (1993) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643299308253457 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Partial Awareness Creates the “Illusion” of Subliminal Semantic Priming
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Self-citation
Unconscious semantic priming from pictures
Dell’Acqua, R., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (1999) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(99)00049-9 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Early extraction of meaning from pictures and its relation to conscious identification.
McCauley, C., Parmelee, C. M., Sperber, R. D., & Carr, T. H. (1980) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.6.2.265 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Measuring the Relative Magnitude of Unconscious Influences
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Unconscious perception: Attention, awareness, and control.
Debner, J. A., & Jacoby, L. L. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.2.304 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Mechanisms of Priming by Masked Stimuli: Inferences From Event-Related Brain Potentials
Leuthold, H., & Kopp, B. (1998) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00053 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Translation priming with different scripts: Masked priming with cognates and noncognates in Hebrew–English bilinguals.
Gollan, T. H., Forster, K., & Frost, R. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.23.5.1122 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Automaticity and the Amygdala: Nonconscious Responses to Emotional Faces
Ohman, A. (2002) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00169 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Time course of context effects.
TAYLOR, D. A. H. B. (1977) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.106.4.404 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Untitled work
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Negative Compatibility or Object Updating? A Cautionary Tale of Mask-Dependent Priming.
Lleras, A., & Enns, J. T. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.4.475 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Nonconscious semantic processing of emotional words modulates conscious access
Gaillard, R., Cul, A. D., Naccache, L., Vinckier, F., Cohen, L., & Dehaene, S. (2006) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0600584103 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Self-citation
Semantic facilitation in lexical decision as a function of prime-target association
Koriat, A. (1981) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03202353 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Event perception and the word repetition effect.
Humphreys, G. W., Besner, D., & Quinlan, P. T. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.117.1.51 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Subliminal Convergence of Kanji and Kana Words: Further Evidence for Functional Parcellation of the Posterior Temporal Cortex in Visual Word Perception
Nakamura, K., Dehaene, S., Jobert, A., Bihan, D. L., & Kouider, S. (2005) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/0898929054021166 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Self-citation
The detection of visual signals by macaque frontal eye field during masking
Thompson, K. G., & Schall, J. D. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/6398 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Implicit associative priming in a patient with left visual neglect
Làdavas, E., Paladini, R., & Cubelli, R. (1993) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(93)90100-e · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Sequential modulations of stimulus-response correspondence effects depend on awareness of response conflict
Kunde, W. (2003) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196485 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Congruity effects evoked by subliminally presented primes: Automaticity rather than semantic processing.
Damian, M. F. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.27.1.154 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
The Psychology of Suggestion
Sidis, B. (1898) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.8.188.162 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Qualitative Differences Between Conscious and Nonconscious Processing? On Inverse Priming Induced by Masked Arrows.
Verleger, R., Jaśkowskí, P., Aydemir, A., Lubbe, R. H. J. V. D., & Groen, M. A. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.4.494 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Graphemic, associative, and syntactic priming effects at a brief stimulus onset asynchrony in lexical decision and naming.
Sereno, J. A. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.17.3.459 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Subliminal words activate semantic categories (not automated motor responses)
Abrams, R. L., Klinger, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196262 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Event–related potential indices of masked repetition priming
Misra, M., & Holcomb, P. J. (2003) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/1469-8986.00012 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
The effects of prime visibility on ERP measures of masked priming
Holcomb, P. J., Reder, L., Misra, M., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (2005) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.003 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Attentional modulation of sensorimotor processes in the absence of perceptual awareness
Sumner, P., Tsai, P., Yu, K. K. H., & Nachev, P. (2006) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0601974103 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Visibility, visual awareness, and visual masking of simple unattended targets are confined to areas in the occipital cortex beyond human V1/V2
Tse, P. U., Martínez‐Conde, S., Schlegel, A. A., & Macknik, S. L. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0508010102 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
PSYCHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF UNCONSCIOUS PERCEPTION
Merikle, P. M., & Daneman, M. (1998) · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Long-term semantic memory versus contextual memory in unconscious number processing.
Greenwald, A. G., Abrams, R. L., Naccache, L., & Dehaene, S. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.29.2.235 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citation
Masked Repetition and Phonological Priming Within and Across Modalities.
Jonathan Grainger, B., Diependaele, K., Spinelli, E., Ferrand, L., & Farioli, F. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.29.6.1256 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
The Mechanism Underlying Backward Priming in a Lexical Decision Task: Spreading Activation versus Semantic Matching
Chwilla, D. J., Hagoort, P., & Brown, C. M. (1998) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/713755773 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Unconscious perception of “extinguished” visual stimuli: Reassessing the evidence
Farah, M. J., Monheit, M. A., & Wallace, M. A. (1991) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(91)90059-h · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Masked Phonological Priming in Reading Chinese Words Depends on the Task
Shen, D., & Forster, K. I. (1999) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/016909699386149 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Levels of processing for visual stimuli in an “extinguished” field
Berti, A., Allport, A., Driver, J., et al. (1992) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(92)90088-4 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Another look at semantic priming without awareness
Purcell, D. G., Stewart, A. L., & Stanovich, K. E. (1983) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03205897 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Conscious and preconscious recognition on polysemous words: Locating selective effects of prior verbal contexts
Marcel, A. J. (1980) · Attention and performance · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Subliminal Speech Priming
Kouider, S., & Dupoux, E. (2005) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01584.x · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Self-citation
Theories of priming: II. Types of primes.
McNamara, T. P. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.3.507 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Unconscious perception: The need for a paradigm shift
Holender, D., & Duscherer, K. (2004) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03194980 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Active masks and active inhibition: A comment on Lleras and Enns (2004) and on Verleger, Jaśkowski, Aydemir, van der Lubbe, and Groen (2004).
Schlaghecken, F., & Eimer, M. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.135.3.484 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Phonological Priming by Masked Nonword Primes in the Lexical Decision Task
Lukatela, G., Frost, S. J., & Turvey, M. T. (1998) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.1998.2599 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Semantic Errors or Statistical Flukes? a Note on Allport's “On Knowing the Meaning of Words We are Unable to Report”
Ellis, A. W., & Marshall, J. C. (1978) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/00335557843000142 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Traces Left on Visual Selective Attention by Stimuli That Are Not Consciously Identified
Jaśkowskí, P., Lubbe, R. H. J. V. D., Schlotterbeck, E., & Verleger, R. (2002) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00408 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
A functional disconnection between spoken and visual word recognition: evidence from unconscious priming
Kouider, S., & Emmanuel Dupoux, A. (2001) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(01)00152-4 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citation
DO SEMANTIC CATEGORIES ACTIVATE DISTINCT CORTICAL REGIONS? EVIDENCE FOR A DISTRIBUTED NEURAL SEMANTIC SYSTEM
TYLER, L. K., Bright, P., Dick, E. L., Tavares, P., Pilgrim, L. K., Fletcher, P. C., Greer, M., & Moss, H. E. (2003) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643290244000211 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Set size and repetition in the picture–word interference paradigm: implications for models of naming
Caramazza, A., & Costa, A. (2001) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(00)00137-2 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Lexical access without attention? Explorations using dichotic priming.
Emmanuel Dupoux, A., Kouider, S., & Mehler, J. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.29.1.172 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
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Activating response codes by stimuli in the neglected visual field.
Cohen, A., Ivry, R. B., Rafal, R. D., et al. (1995) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.9.2.165 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Semantic priming, prime reportability, and retroactive priming are interdependent
Dark, V. J. (1988) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197040 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
The Psychology of Suggestion
Sidis, B. (1898) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-189806000-00043 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Unconscious perception of meaning: A failure to replicate
Nolan, K. A., & Caramazza, A. (1982) · Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society · doi:10.3758/bf03334791 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Automatic stimulus-response associations may be semantically mediated
Reynvoet, B., Caessens, B., & Brysbaert, M. (2002) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196263 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Task-Guided Selection of the Dual Neural Pathways for Reading
Nakamura, K., Hara, N., Kouider, S., Takayama, Y., Hanajima, R., Sakai, K., & Ugawa, Y. (2006) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2006.09.030 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citation
Blinks of the mind: Memory effects of attentional processes.
Martens, S., Wolters, G., & van Raamsdonk, M. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.28.6.1275 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Semantic priming: Subliminal perception or context?
Bernstein, I. H., Bissonnette, V. L., Vyas, A., et al. (1989) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03208050 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Cross-Notation Number Priming Investigated at Different Stimulus Onset Asynchronies in Parity and Naming Tasks
Reynvoet, B., & Brysbaert, M. (2004) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.51.2.81 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Event-related brain potential examination of implicit memory processes: Masked and unmasked repetition priming.
Schnyer, D. M., Allen, J. J. B., & Forster, K. I. (1997) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037//0894-4105.11.2.243 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Category size effects revisited: Frequency and masked priming effects in semantic categorization
Forster, K. I. (2004) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/s0093-934x(03)00440-1 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Unconscious primes activate motor codes through semantics.
Reynvoet, B., Gevers, W., & Caessens, B. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.5.991 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Event-related brain potential examination of implicit memory processes: Masked and unmasked repetition priming.
Schnyer, D. M., Allen, J. J. B., & Forster, K. I. (1997) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.11.2.243 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Automaticity and Consciousness: Is Perceiving the Word Necessary for Reading It?
Tzelgov, J., Porat, Z., & Henik, A. (1997) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1423567 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Visual neglect and left-sided context effects
Audet, T., Bub, D. N., & Lecours, A. (1991) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/0278-2626(91)90082-j · Cited by 47 · see citing works
How to trigger elaborate processing? A comment on Kunde, Kiesel, and Hoffmann (2003)
Opstal, F. V., Reynvoet, B., & Verguts, T. (2005) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2004.12.011 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
On Knowing the Meaning of Words We are Unable to Report Confirmation of a Guessing Explanation
WILLIAMS, P. C., & Parkin, A. J. (1980) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/00335558008248236 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Blinks of the mind: Memory effects of attentional processes.
Martens, S., Wolters, G., & van Raamsdonk, M. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.28.6.1275 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Lexical access without attention? Explorations using dichotic priming.
Dupoux, E., Kouider, S., & Mehler, J. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.29.1.172 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citation
Masked Orthographic Priming: The Effect of Prime-Target Legibility
Davis, C., & Forster, K. I. (1994) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640749408401133 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
On the masking and disclosure of unconscious elaborate processing. A reply to Van Opstal, Reynvoet, and Verguts (2005)
Kunde, W., Kiesel, A., & Hoffmann, J. (2005) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2005.03.005 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Semantic Priming and Identification of near Threshold Primes in a Lexical Decision Task
Dark, V. J., & Benson, K. (1991) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640749108400999 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Retroactive Semantic Priming in a Lexical Decision Task
Briand, K. A., den Heyer, K., & Dannenbring, G. L. (1988) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/02724988843000159 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
A Study in Guessing
Stroh, M., Shaw, A. M., & Washburn, M. F. (1908) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1412764 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Reading isolated words: No evidence for automatic incorporation of the phonetic code
Brysbaert, M., & Praet, C. (1992) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/bf00937137 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
On the Processing of "Extinguished" Stimuli in Unilateral Visual Neglect: An Approach Using Negative Priming
Fuentes, L. J. (1996) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/026432996382088 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Arithmetic priming from neglected numbers
Rusconi, E., Priftis, K., Rusconi, M. L., et al. (2005) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13594320500166381 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Semantic matching, response mode, and response mapping as contributors to retroactive and proactive priming.
VanVoorhis, B. A., & Dark, V. J. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.21.4.913 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
On the nature of phonological assembly: Evidence from backward masking
Perry, C., & Ziegler, J. C. (2002) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690960042000157 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Unconscious semantic categorization and mask interactions: An elaborate response to Kunde et al. (2005)
Opstal, F. V., Reynvoet, B., & Verguts, T. (2005) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2005.04.005 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Event Related Potential Investigations of Cognition
Renault, B. (1989) · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Retrospective Priming and Masked Semantic Priming: The Interfering Effects of Prime Activation
Durante, R., & Hirshman, E. (1994) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.1994.1006 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Is unconscious identity priming lexical or sublexical?
Hutchison, K. A., Neely, J. H., Neill, W. T., et al. (2004) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2004.05.001 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Semantic matching, response mode, and response mapping as contributors to retroactive and proactive priming.
VanVoorhis, B. A., & Dark, V. J. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.913 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The Motor Memory of the Left Hand
Rowe, L., & Washburn, M. F. (1908) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1412763 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Experimental and theoretical approaches to conscious processing
Dehaene, S., & Changeux, J.-P. (2011) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.03.018 · Cited by 2,573 · see citing works
Self-citation
Neural correlates of consciousness: progress and problems
Koch, C., Massimini, M., Boly, M., & Tononi, G. (2016) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn.2016.22 · Cited by 1,600 · see citing works
Empirical support for higher-order theories of conscious awareness
Lau, H., & Rosenthal, D. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.05.009 · Cited by 869 · see citing works
What is consciousness, and could machines have it?
Dehaene, S., Lau, H., & Kouider, S. (2017) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aan8871 · Cited by 855 · see citing works
Self-citation
Consciousness: here, there and everywhere?
Tononi, G., & Koch, C. (2015) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2014.0167 · Cited by 811 · see citing works
Converging Intracranial Markers of Conscious Access
Gaillard, R., Dehaene, S., Adam, C., Clémenceau, S., Hasboun, D., Baulac, M., Cohen, L., & Naccache, L. (2009) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000061 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Self-citation
Toward a computational theory of conscious processing
Dehaene, S., Charles, L., King, J.-R., & Marti, S. (2014) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2013.12.005 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
Self-citation
Consciousness in humans and non-human animals: recent advances and future directions
Boly, M., Seth, A. K., Wilke, M., Ingmundson, P., Baars, B., Laureys, S., Edelman, D. B., & Tsuchiya, N. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00625 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Frontal cortex mediates unconsciously triggered inhibitory control.
van Gaal, S., Ridderinkhof, K. R., Fahrenfort, J. J., Scholte, H. S., & Lamme, V. A. F. (2008) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1278-08.2008 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Information integration without awareness
Mudrik, L., Faivre, N., & Koch, C. (2014) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.04.009 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
A neural marker of perceptual consciousness in infants
Kouider, S., Stahlhut, C., Gelskov, S. V., Barbosa, L. S., Dutat, M., de Gardelle, V., Christophe, A., Dehaene, S., & Dehaene-Lambertz, G. (2013) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1232509 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Self-citation
Working memory without consciousness
Soto, D., Mäntylä, T., & Silvanto, J. (2011) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.09.049 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Distinct brain mechanisms for conscious versus subliminal error detection
Charles, L., Van Opstal, F., Marti, S., & Dehaene, S. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.01.054 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Self-citation
Brain Mechanisms Underlying the Brief Maintenance of Seen and Unseen Sensory Information
King, J.-R., Pescetelli, N., & Dehaene, S. (2016) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2016.10.051 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Self-citation
Challenges for theories of consciousness: seeing or knowing, the missing ingredient and how to deal with panpsychism
Lamme, V. A. F. (2018) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0344 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Minimally conscious state or cortically mediated state?
Naccache, L. (2018) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awx324 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Coupling the State and Contents of Consciousness
Aru, J., Suzuki, M., Rutiku, R., Larkum, M. E., & Bachmann, T. (2019) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2019.00043 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Event related potentials elicited by violations of auditory regularities in patients with impaired consciousness
Faugeras, F., Rohaut, B., Weiss, N., Bekinschtein, T., Galanaud, D., Puybasset, L., Bolgert, F., Sergent, C., Cohen, L., Dehaene, S., et al. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.12.015 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Self-citation
The evolutionary and genetic origins of consciousness in the Cambrian Period over 500 million years ago
Feinberg, T. E., & Mallatt, J. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00667 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
“…subliminal perception during masking, binocular rivalry, attentional blink, inattentional preconsciousness, and implicit cognition (Baars, 2002; Kouider and Dehaene, 2007; Ciaramelli et al., 2010; Brogaard, 2011; Overgaard, 2012; Panagiotaropoulos et al., 2012; van Gaal and Lamme, 2012; Baars…”
Background
Can the meaning of multiple words be integrated unconsciously?
van Gaal, S., Naccache, L., Meuwese, J. D. I., van Loon, A. M., Leighton, A. H., Cohen, L., & Dehaene, S. (2014) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0212 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Self-citation
The vigilant sleeper: neural mechanisms of sensory (de)coupling during sleep
Andrillon, T., & Kouider, S. (2020) · Current Opinion in Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cophys.2019.12.002 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
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Authors: Kouider, S., & Dehaene, S.
Affiliations: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
Inserm (FR)
Corresponding author: Kouider, Sid
ORCID: Kouider, Sid
Dehaene, Stanislas
Venue: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
Publisher: The Royal Society
Published: 2007-04-02
Volume: 362
Issue: 1481
Pages: 857-875
ISSN: 0962-8436 (ISSN-L)
1471-2970
DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2007.2093
PMC: PMC2430002
OpenAlex: W2165768077
Cited by: 835
References: 193
Citations by year: 2026: 27 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 37 · 2020: 45 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 59 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 55 · 2014: 65 · 2013: 51 · 2012: 49
FWCI: 15.32
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: royalsociety.org/journals/ethics-policies/data-sharing-mining/ (tdm)
Locations: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Keywords: visual masking, subliminal perception, levels of processing, subliminal priming, attentional blink, top-down attention, neural correlates of consciousness, conscious access
MeSH terms: Attention, Brain, Consciousness, Humans, Neuropsychology, Perception, Perceptual Masking, Semantics, Unconscious, Psychology

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Levels of processing during non-conscious perception: a critical review of visual masking

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