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A Neural Stimulator Frontend With High-Voltage Compliance and Programmable Pulse Shape for Epiretinal Implants
Abstract
This paper presents an integrated neural stimulator with highly efficient and flexible frontend which is intended for an epiretinal implant with 1024 electrodes. It features programmable stimulation pulse shapes, a high-voltage (HV) output driver with compliance monitor for supply voltage adaptation, active and passive charge balancers, and electrode impedance measurement. Area and power efficiency is achieved by global timing assignment and local amplitude control over a bus at the local stimulation units. Major power savings in the distributed digital control units are realized by implementing global and local clock gating. Two stimulator frontends have been fabricated in a 0.35 μm HVCMOS process. Each frontend features four demultiplexed outputs and consumes 0.2 mm2core area. A maximum voltage compliance of 20 V is achieved and up to 1 mA of output current can be adjusted with up to 50 dB dynamic range. In vitro experimental results performed on a platinum black electrode in 0.9% saline solution are given.
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“Real-time monitoring of the voltage compliance enables operation with the minimum supply necessary for stimulation, which improves the power efficiency of the HV stimulus pulse driver circuit [44], [129].”
From Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review (2024) · cites this paper as [129]
In the citing paper
“Alternatively, the VCR topology can maintain a high output impedance with little voltage overhead by introducing regulated cascode current mirrors, as shown in Fig. 5(b). These structures avoid reliance on linearity compensation circuits [129].”
From Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review (2024) · cites this paper as [129]
Citations
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A Power-Efficient Wireless System With Adaptive Supply Control for Deep Brain Stimulation
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“The 5-bit current sources with binary-weighted transistors are placed at the output stage directly to reduce the stimulator power loss compared to using current mirrors after a 5-bit current DAC in [20].”
BackgroundMethodToward true closed-loop neuromodulation: artifact-free recording during stimulation.
Zhou, A., Johnson, B. C., & Muller, R. (2018) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2018.01.012 · Cited by 125
“Some systems monitor VOFFSET at the electrode from accumulated charge and calibrate the second phase current to minimize this offset [16].”
Shin, U., Ding, C., Zhu, B., Vyza, Y., Trouillet, A., Revol, E. C. M., Lacour, S. P., & Shoaran, M. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2022.3204508 · Cited by 124
“681 To ensure precise CB, an offset-regulation active CB tech- 682 nique combined with passive discharging is employed [67].”
MethodA Complete 256-Electrode Retinal Prosthesis Chip
Tran, N., Bai, S., Yang, J., Chun, H., Kavehei, O., Yang, Y., Muktamath, V., Ng, D., Meffin, H., Halpern, M., et al. (2014) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2014.2298037 · Cited by 90
“A compliance monitoring mechanism has been reported [40], where the supply voltage is adaptively changed due to out-of-compliance.”
BackgroundShi, Z., Zheng, F., Zhou, Z., Li, M., Fan, Z., Ye, H., Zhang, S., Xiao, T., Chen, L., Tao, T. H., et al. (2019) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.201801617 · Cited by 94
A Fully Intraocular High-Density Self-Calibrating Epiretinal Prosthesis
Monge, M., Raj, M., Nazari, M. H., Chang, H.-C., Zhao, Y., Weiland, J. D., Humayun, M. S., Tai, Y.-C., & Emami, A. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2014.2298334 · Cited by 85
“Several studies have shown that more sophisticated waveforms such as high-frequency pulse trains, asymmetric biphasic pulses, or non-rectangular shapes (Gaussian, linear and exponential), present advantages over biphasic pulses [21]–[24].”
BackgroundInfluentialSilicon-Integrated High-Density Electrocortical Interfaces
Ha, S., Akinin, A., Park, J., Kim, C., Wang, H., Maier, C., Mercier, P. P., & Cauwenberghs, G. (2016) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2016.2587690 · Cited by 84
“Several other techniques for better charge balancing have been demonstrated: 1) shorting electrodes to ground [102]; and 2) utilizing a discharging resistor [94], active current balancing by feedback control [103], [104], generating additional balancing current pulses by monitoring electrode voltages [105], and embedd…”
A Fully-Integrated High-Compliance Voltage SoC for Epi-Retinal and Neural Prostheses
Lo, Y., Chen, K., Gad, P. N., & Liu, W. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2013.2297695 · Cited by 80
A Multi-Modality CMOS Sensor Array for Cell-Based Assay and Drug Screening
Chi, T., Park, J. H., Butts, J. C., Hookway, T. A., Su, A. M., Zhu, C., Styczynski, M. P., McDevitt, T. C., & Wang, H. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2015.2504984 · Cited by 74
“It also prevents DC currents charging the cells to avoid cellular damages [22].”
BackgroundPu, H., Malekzadeh-Arasteh, O., Danesh, A. R., Nenadić, Z., Do, A. H., & Heydari, P. (2021) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2021.3108578 · Cited by 72
Butz, N., Taschwer, A., Nessler, S., Manoli, Y., & Kuhl, M. (2018) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2018.2828823 · Cited by 70
“Considering current amplitudes up to ±5 mA and electrode impedances typically larger than 1 k [1], HV-compliant systems are necessary.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSafety Ensuring Retinal Prosthesis With Precise Charge Balance and Low Power Consumption
Chun, H., Yang, Y., & Lehmann, T. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2013.2257171 · Cited by 68
A CMOS Current Steering Neurostimulation Array With Integrated DAC Calibration and Charge Balancing
Greenwald, E., Maier, C., Wang, Q., Beaulieu, R., Etienne‐Cummings, R., Cauwenberghs, G., & Thakor, N. V. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2016.2609854 · Cited by 54
“Parameter This Work [37] [10] [18] [28] [38] [27] [14] [13]”
MethodLuo, Z., Ker, M., Yang, T.-Y., & Cheng, W.-H. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2017.2713122 · Cited by 50
“In addition, the gate voltage of the transistor in the current generator circuit [2] and the maximum electrode voltage [3] were monitored to provide an adjustable supply voltage.”
BackgroundHsu, W.-Y., & Schmid, A. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2017.2694144 · Cited by 49
“Such drawback becomes more significant in huge arrays such as those used in retinal prosthesis, in which the supply voltage must be adapted to the worst-case within hundreds even thousands of electrodes [5].”
BackgroundA System Verification Platform for High-Density Epiretinal Prostheses
Chen, K., Lo, Y., Yang, Z., Weiland, J. D., Humayun, M. S., & Liu, W. (2012) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2012.2200103 · Cited by 48
“Advances in retinal prostheses have been reported actively in the past few years for epiretinal [7]–[9], subretinal [10], [11], and supra-choroidal [12], [13] approaches.”
BackgroundMethodAn Embedded Deep Brain Stimulator for Biphasic Chronic Experiments in Freely Moving Rodents
Kölbl, F., N’Kaoua, G., Naudet, F., Berthier, F., Faggiani, E., Renaud, S., Benazzouz, A., & Lewis, N. (2014) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2014.2368788 · Cited by 48
Bidirectional Bioelectronic Interfaces: System Design and Circuit Implications
Liu, Y., Urso, A., Ponte, R. M. D., Costa, T. L., Valente, V., Giagka, V., Serdijn, W. A., Constandinou, T. G., & Denison, T. (2020) · IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine · doi:10.1109/mssc.2020.2987506 · Cited by 40
“Traditionally, the driver circuits of these electrodes are operated from a single high-voltage supply [17], [18], degrading the overall power efficiency as not all electrodes develop the same voltage; as a consequence, a lot of voltage headroom is being wasted.”
BackgroundA High-Voltage Compliance, 32-Channel Digitally Interfaced Neuromodulation System on Chip
Reich, S., Sporer, M., Haas, M., Becker, J., Schüettler, M., & Ortmanns, M. (2021) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2021.3076510 · Cited by 43
“CCS is more commonly used nowadays for stimulation, as it allows to precisely define the amount of charge transfered to the tissue [21].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationvan Dongen, M. N., & Serdijn, W. A. (2014) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2014.2363736 · Cited by 40
“As an example a system is considered with mV [3] and % [13], which is connected to a load of”
BackgroundZhao, J., Yao, L., Xue, R.-F., Li, P., Je, M., & Xu, Y. P. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2015.2404038 · Cited by 36
“(a) Architecture in [4], [5].”
BackgroundInfluentialA Fully Integrated RF-Powered Energy-Replenishing Current-Controlled Stimulator
Ha, S., Kim, C., Park, J., Cauwenberghs, G., & Mercier, P. P. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2018.2881800 · Cited by 35
Son, J.-Y., & Cha, H. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.3012028 · Cited by 35
“It is commonly known that the safe window range of electrode residual voltage that does not damage the tissue and electrode is ±50 mV [19], [20] or ±100 mV [21], and many stimulator design works aim to maintain the residual voltage within the safe window.”
BackgroundTakeda, K., & Torikai, H. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2020.2971786 · Cited by 31
“Various kinds of neural prosthetic devices have been developed so far, such as cochlear implants [1] [2], retinal implants [3] [4], and brain implants [5]–[7].”
BackgroundBrown, D. J., & Proulx, M. J. (2016) · IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/jstsp.2016.2543678 · Cited by 33
“Invasive techniques such as implants provide low resolution imagery by stimulating surviving retinal cells [2]–[5], cortex [6]–[9] or optic nerve [10].”
BackgroundA 232-channel retinal vision prosthesis with a miniaturized hermetic package
Ordonez, J. S., Schüettler, M., Ortmanns, M., & Stieglitz, T. (2012) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2012.6346545 · Cited by 28
Self-citationA Robust Multioutput Self-Regulated Rectifier for Wirelessly Powered Biomedical Applications
Hassan, N. U., Hong, S., & Lee, B. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics · doi:10.1109/tie.2020.2988226 · Cited by 27
Design of Dual-Mode Stimulus Chip With Built-In High Voltage Generator for Biomedical Applications
Yen, T.-Y., & Ker, M. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2020.2999398 · Cited by 26
“their supply voltages dynamically [28], [29], those proposed methods still need to satisfy the Equation (1).”
BackgroundWu, Y., Jiang, D., & Demosthenous, A. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2021.3139996 · Cited by 26
“There are two issues with this implementation: 1) For asymmetrical biphasic pulses (beneficial for stimulation efficacy [19]), the charge on the capacitor in the CT-DAC must be recharged during the interphase delay.”
BackgroundAn Implantable Versatile Electrode-Driving ASIC for Chronic Epidural Stimulation in Rats
Giagka, V., Eder, C. F., Donaldson, N., & Demosthenous, A. (2014) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2014.2330859 · Cited by 26
“1% mismatch error, which is within the limits of other designs, when only active discharge is employed ([40], [41]).”
BackgroundAn Ultra High-Frequency 8-Channel Neurostimulator Circuit With $\text{68}\%$ Peak Power Efficiency
Urso, A., Giagka, V., van Dongen, M. N., & Serdijn, W. A. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2019.2920294 · Cited by 25
“In a similar concept [12] and [13], a compliance monitor is used to continuously adjust the stimulation supply voltage.”
Shadmani, A., Viswam, V., Chen, Y., Bounik, R., Dragas, J., Radivojevic, M., Geissler, S., Sitnikov, S., Muller, J., & Hierlemann, A. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2018.2890530 · Cited by 24
“so that high-voltage compliance circuits have been developed [22]–[25].”
Zhou, Y., Bi, Z.-Y., Ji, M., Chen, S., Wang, W., Wang, K., Hu, B., Lü, X., & Wang, Z. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2020.2980294 · Cited by 24
“Some techniques have been utilized to improve stimulator phase matching, such as feedback control, current-copying, and H-bridge [18], [19].”
MethodTelemetry for implantable medical devices: Part 3 - Data telemetry
Bihr, U., Liu, T., & Ortmanns, M. (2014) · IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine · doi:10.1109/mssc.2014.2347812 · Cited by 24
Self-citationA Neuromodulator Frontend With Reconfigurable Class-B Current and Voltage Controlled Stimulator
Haas, M., Vogelmann, P., & Ortmanns, M. (2018) · IEEE Solid-State Circuits Letters · doi:10.1109/lssc.2018.2827885 · Cited by 24
“2 mA from a ±9 V supply, the anodic and cathodic output stages are realized with regulated-cascode triode current mirrors [4].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationTaschwer, A., Butz, N., Kohler, M., Rossbach, D., & Manoli, Y. (2018) · IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS) · doi:10.1109/biocas.2018.8584755 · Cited by 24
“Reference Chun [4] Greenwald [5] Lee [2] Noorsal [3] This work”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMiao, Y., & Koomson, V. J. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2018.2798924 · Cited by 23
Kuo, P., Wong, O., Tzeng, C., Wu, P., Chiao, C., Chen, P.-H., Chen, P., Tsai, Y.-C., Chu, F.-L., Ohta, J., et al. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2019.2938807 · Cited by 22
Song, K., Lee, H.-W., Hong, S., Cho, H., Ha, U., & Yoo, H. (2012) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2012.2232292 · Cited by 22
“Compared to the previous charge balancing techniques [15], [20]–[22], the proposed LTC S/H current matching technique removes 1) large off-chip blocking capacitor, 2) long discharge time, 3) additional current spike, and 4) long offset nulling time.”
MethodMaghami, M. H., Sodagar, A. M., & Sawan, M. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2016.2542112 · Cited by 22
“Useful image information is then sent to an implantable module through the wireless connection, according to which the visual system is electrically stimulated [6]–[10].”
BackgroundZhang, W., Qin, X., Wang, L., Tong, Y., Rui, Y., Rong, X., & Du, J. (2019) · Review of Scientific Instruments · doi:10.1063/1.5119148 · Cited by 22
Telemetry for Implantable Medical Devices: Part 2 - Power Telemetry
Xu, H., Handwerker, J., & Ortmanns, M. (2014) · IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine · doi:10.1109/mssc.2014.2327714 · Cited by 22
“The most common approaches for multisupply generation are programmable shunt and series regulators, coupled multicoil inductive links [8], using intermediate taps on the coil for different ac input voltages [8], or using on-chip charge pumps [7].”
BackgroundSelf-citationActive Charge Balancer With Adaptive 3.3 V to 38 V Supply Compliance for Neural Stimulators
Butz, N., Kalita, U., & Manoli, Y. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2021.3101550 · Cited by 21
“Therefore, in contrast to the short pulse insertion [10], where large charge packages might cause the electrode voltage to step up and down across the safe window and result in a ringing steady state potential [2], the presented approach provides inherent stability around the target value.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWu, Y., Jiang, D., & Demosthenous, A. (2022) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 20
From Wearables to Implantables: Harnessing Sensor Technologies for Continuous Health Monitoring
Koruprolu, A., Hack, T., Ghadami, O., Jain, A., & Hall, D. A. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2025.3568754 · Cited by 20
“Charge-balanced biphasic current pulses can stimulate the retina of patients affected by age-related macular degradation to elicit vision perception of simple forms [169], [170].”
A bidirectional neural interface with a HV stimulator and a LV neural amplifier
Bihr, U., Ungru, T., Xu, H., Anders, J., Becker, J., & Ortmanns, M. (2013) · IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems proceedings · doi:10.1109/iscas.2013.6571865 · Cited by 19
“cochlear or retinal implants to overcome missing or lost body functions [1].”
BackgroundSelf-citationKassiri, H., Chen, F., Salam, M. T., Chang, M., Vatankhahghadim, B., Carlen, P. L., Valiante, T. A., & Genov, R. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2019.2900455 · Cited by 20
Advances in Neural Recording and Stimulation Integrated Circuits
Li, J., Liu, X., Mao, W., Chen, T., & Yu, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.663204 · Cited by 21
Kassiri, H., Muneeb, A., Salahi, R., & Dabbaghian, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3456825 · Cited by 19
Qiu, Z., Nguyen, A. T., Su, K., Yang, Z., & Xu, J. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2023.3321295 · Cited by 21
“Passive charge balancing [45], [46], [47], [48] involves electrode shorting and capacitor blocking to discharge the electrode Authorized licensed use limited to the terms of the applicable license agreement with IEEE.”
BackgroundXu, H., Noorsal, E., Sooksood, K., Becker, J., & Ortmanns, M. (2012) · European Solid-State Circuits Conference (ESSCIRC) · doi:10.1109/esscirc.2012.6341316 · Cited by 18
“), which is able to detect if the compliance voltage is sufficient for the current stimulation [6].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationNguyen, A. T., Xu, J., Luu, D. K., Overstreet, C. K., Cheng, J., Keefer, E. W., & Yang, Z. (2021) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2021.3057041 · Cited by 18
Feyerick, M., & Dehaene, W. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2023.3287294 · Cited by 17
Yao, L., Zhao, J., Li, P., Xue, R.-F., Xu, Y. P., & Je, M. (2014) · IEEE Asian Solid-State Circuits Conference (A-SSCC) · doi:10.1109/asscc.2014.7008895 · Cited by 17
“Additionally, electrode impedance check (EIC) function is provided for electrode condition monitoring and further optimization of stimulator power efficiency [1-2].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPrecision control of pulse widths for charge balancing in functional electrical stimulation
Lo, Y., Hill, R., Chen, K., & Liu, W. (2013) · International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering · doi:10.1109/ner.2013.6696225 · Cited by 17
“Active balancing schemes have been reported in [6],[7].”
BackgroundA 15-Channel 30-V Neural Stimulator for Spinal Cord Repair
Tao, Y., & Hierlemann, A. R. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems · doi:10.1109/tvlsi.2018.2832051 · Cited by 16
“However, it would be difficult to combine the regulated cascoding scheme [1], [2] with our source-switching scheme in the HV domain.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialYao, L., Li, P., & Je, M. (2015) · 2015 IEEE Asian Solid-State Circuits Conference (A-SSCC) · doi:10.1109/asscc.2015.7387478 · Cited by 16
Katebi, M., Erfanian, A., Karami, M. A., & Sawan, M. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3432611 · Cited by 16
“The second type is the high output impedance current mirror based on the gain boosting technique [12], [45], [58], [61], [62], [68], [69], [75], [76], [86], [104], [108], [116], [119], [121], [123], shown in Figure 12(b).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLiu, D., Wang, R., Yao, K., Zou, X., & Guo, L. (2014) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s140814839 · Cited by 14
Butz, N., Taschwer, A., Manoli, Y., & Kuhl, M. (2016) · Digest of technical papers/Digest of technical papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference · doi:10.1109/isscc.2016.7418071 · Cited by 14
“But considering arbitrary stimulators and applications with current amplitudes up to ±5mA and electrode impedances ≥1kΩ [3], HV compliant systems are needed.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA 4-Channel Neural Stimulation IC Design With Charge Balancing and Multiple Current Output Modes
Li, J., Chen, W., Liu, X., Wan, P., & Chen, Z. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2023.3316969 · Cited by 13
“…the stimulation current may cause the change of local field potential (LFP) of the nerve unit, which will generate action potentials (APs) to stimulate distal nerve units like the retinal nerve, peripheral nerve, and intracranial nerve achieving the normal function of the body [8], [9], [10], [11].”
BackgroundEshaghi, F., Najafiaghdam, E., & Kassiri, H. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3094766 · Cited by 13
“This shows that (i) some of the threshold values used in the literature (20-100mV range [20], [21], [24], [29], [30]) might only work for low-frequency stimulation or small CDL values; and (ii) the threshold value is dependent on both the application and the electrodes, so it must be programmable.”
BackgroundLo, Y., Chen, K., Gad, P. N., & Liu, W. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2014.2371695 · Cited by 13
Cui, K., Jin, Y., Fan, X., & Ma, Y. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3366518 · Cited by 12
“In contrast, A biphasic-pulse-charge control (BPCC) eliminates the charge accumulation by correcting the amplitude or pulse width of the cathodic and anodic stimulation pulses directly [28], [29], which will not bring the issues mentioned before.”
BackgroundYao, L., Made, D. I., & Gao, Y. (2016) · IEEE Asian Solid-State Circuits Conference (A-SSCC) · doi:10.1109/asscc.2016.7844171 · Cited by 12
“The energy efficiency of these stimulators is becoming increasingly important when they are implemented in the form of fully implantable devices [2-4].”
BackgroundA 0.5 V/1.8 V High Dynamic Range CMOS Imager for Artificial Retina Applications
Lee, C.-L., & Hsieh, C.-C. (2015) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2015.2453553 · Cited by 12
Toward an Energy-Efficient High-Voltage Compliant Visual Intracortical Multichannel Stimulator
Hasanuzzaman, M., Ghane-Motlagh, B., Mounaïm, F., Hassan, A., Raut, R., & Sawan, M. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems · doi:10.1109/tvlsi.2018.2794445 · Cited by 12
“A comparison between our design and other microstimulators, reported in [9], [13], [20], [21], and [46], is presented in Tables II and III.”
ResultActive Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review
Habibollahi, M., Jiang, D., Lancashire, H. T., & Demosthenous, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3430038 · Cited by 11
“They check for available headroom with respect to the interface impedance [44], [129], and detect excess power or leakage of fluids via temperature and humidity sensing [67], [80].”
InfluentialRecent advances in power efficient output stage for high density implantable stimulators
Sooksood, K., Noorsal, E., Bihr, U., & Ortmanns, M. (2012) · 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society · doi:10.1109/embc.2012.6346066 · Cited by 11
Self-citationKassiri, H., Dutta, G., Soltani, N., Liu, C., Hu, Y., & Genov, R. (2016) · European Solid-State Circuits Conference (ESSCIRC) · doi:10.1109/esscirc.2016.7598283 · Cited by 11
“Specification JSSC’1 JSSC’10 TBioCAS’12THIS [4] [8] [7] WORK TECHNOLOGY (μm) 0.”
BackgroundA Programmable High-Voltage Compliance Neural Stimulator for Deep Brain Stimulation in Vivo
Gong, C. A., Lai, H., Huang, S.-H., Lo, Y., Lee, N. M., Chen, P., Tu, P., Yang, C., Lin, J. C., & Chen, Y. (2015) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s150612700 · Cited by 11
“Reference [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] This work”
A Zero-Voltage Switching Technique for Minimizing the Current-Source Power of Implanted Stimulators
Çilingiroğlu, U., & Ipek, S. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2012.2225621 · Cited by 11
Design of a net-zero charge neural stimulator with feedback control
Liu, X., Zhang, M., Sun, H., Richardson, A. G., Lucas, T. H., & der Spiegel, J. V. (2014) · IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS) · doi:10.1109/biocas.2014.6981770 · Cited by 11
“Current-controlled stimulation can be implemented in dual supply voltages [8] or single supply voltage [9].”
BackgroundCurrent driver with read-out HV protection for neural stimulation
Osipov, D., Steffen Paul, A., Strokov, S., Kreiter, A. K., Schander, A., Tessmann, T., & Lang, W. (2016) · IEEE Nordic Circuits and Systems Conference (NorCAS) · doi:10.1109/norchip.2016.7792909 · Cited by 11
“The level shift of the low voltage control signal ΦA switch is implemented as in [14].”
Jeon, Y., Yao, L., Gao, Y., & Arasu, M. A. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2019.2919333 · Cited by 11
“The minimum supply voltage for the stimulator in voltage compliance can be expressed as in (1) which is similar to the analysis in [6];”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDanesh, A. R., Pu, H., Safiallah, M., Do, A. H., Nenadić, Z., & Heydari, P. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2024.3391190 · Cited by 13
“Several CB techniques have been introduced by prior art including passive CB [26], charge-pack injection (CPI) [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], dynamic current mirrors [32], [33], [34], offset regulation (OR) [26], [28], [35], interpulse charge control [26], and time-based charge-balancing [2], [36].”
A CMOS neurostimulator with on-chip DAC calibration and charge balancing
Greenwald, E., Chen, C., Thakor, N. V., Maier, C., & Cauwenberghs, G. (2013) · IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS) · doi:10.1109/biocas.2013.6679646 · Cited by 10
Zhao, J., Yao, L., Xue, R.-F., Li, P., Je, M., & Xu, Y. P. (2013) · IEEE Asian Solid-State Circuits Conference (A-SSCC) · doi:10.1109/asscc.2013.6691030 · Cited by 10
“1(a), to generate both high voltage (HV) supply VDD_H and low voltage (LV) supply VDD_L, a tap is placed somewhere in the middle of the implantable coil [5] or two separate implantable coils are used [6].”
BackgroundWAND: A 128-channel, closed-loop, wireless artifact-free neuromodulation devicePreprint
Zhou, A., Santacruz, S. R., Johnson, B. C., Alexandrov, G., Moin, A., Burghardt, F., Rabaey, J. M., Carmena, J. M., & Muller, R. (2017) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1708.00556 · Cited by 10
Xu, H., Bihr, U., Becker, J., & Ortmanns, M. (2013) · IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems proceedings · doi:10.1109/iscas.2013.6571923 · Cited by 9
“Since the stimulation induced power consumption dominates in the active mode [4], this mechanism will lead to maximum powering saving of 40% for the implantable circuit.”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationDesign of a high voltage stimulator chip for a stroke rehabilitation system
Zeng, L., Yi, X., Lu, S., Lou, Y., Jiang, J., Qu, H., Lan, N., & Wang, G. (2013) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2013.6609630 · Cited by 9
“In 2012, a neural stimulator frontend with high-voltage compliance and programmable pulse shape for epiretinal implants has been developed [9].”
BackgroundFully-implantable, multi-channel, microstimulator with tracking supply ribbon and energy recovery
Rashidi, A., Yazdani, N., & Sodagar, A. M. (2016) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2016.7591072 · Cited by 9
“In such a scenario, for most of the time, the voltage appearing across the output of a conventional current driver is much larger than necessary, causing significant extra power loss [2-5].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHarmonic-balance circuit analysis for electro-neural interfaces
Chen, Z., Wang, B.-Y., & Palanker, D. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab89fd · Cited by 9
Xin, H., Zhou, M., van Wegberg, R., Vis, P., Petkos, K., Patki, S., Rossetti, N., Fichman, M., Mihajlović, V., López, C. M., et al. (2024) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2024.3503914 · Cited by 8
“Several active CB solutions have been proposed for biphasic stimulators [14], [18], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25].”
InfluentialEom, K., Lee, H.-S., Ku, S.-B., Kang, J., Jung, H., Kim, T., Joo, J., Kim, T.-K., Shon, Y., & Lee, H. (2025) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2025.3542022 · Cited by 8
“Our D 2 S 2 system integrates the arbitrary stimulus controller that dynamically adjusts the bias current of the stimulation over time using a 4-bit digital control, generating various waveforms for more efficient neural stimulation [62].”
Erfani, R., Marefat, F., Mandal, S., & Mohseni, P. (2016) · IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems proceedings · doi:10.1109/iscas.2016.7527434 · Cited by 8
“1, the active charge balancer employs the pulse insertion technique [2], [3] in which two on-chip comparators sample the stimulus site voltage in the charge-balancing phase of IC operation after each stimulus cycle and, if necessary, enable two 3b auxiliary DACs to inject positive or negative current pulses until the…”
BackgroundMethodRashidi, A., Yazdani, N., & Sodagar, A. M. (2020) · IET Circuits Devices & Systems · doi:10.1049/cds2.12007 · Cited by 8
A bidirectional neural interface IC with high voltage compliance and spectral separation
Haas, M., Bihr, U., Anders, J., & Ortmanns, M. (2016) · IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems proceedings · doi:10.1109/iscas.2016.7539160 · Cited by 8
“Additionally, M3 and M3m can be biased in deep triode for high currents [8], in order to achieve high VC and power efficiency.”
BackgroundSelf-citationKim, M. W., Kim, H., Song, M., & Kim, J. J. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2023.3297611 · Cited by 7
“Optimal stimulation conditions including stimulus frequency, pulse width, charge amount, and waveform shape need to be changed according to thetypeofdisease[22],andamultifunctionalstimulationsystem [23]hasbeenpresented.”
BackgroundAdvances in Scalable Implantable Systems for Neurostimulation Using Networked ASICs
Liu, X., Zong, Z., Jiang, D., Bougaila, B., Donaldson, N., & Demosthenous, A. (2016) · IEEE Design and Test · doi:10.1109/mdat.2016.2533358 · Cited by 7
“While instantaneous adjustment of the supply voltage during the stimulation is possible, it usually requires a complex monitoring circuit (for checking the bias voltage in a current generator circuit [5], [30], the instantaneous stimulus current [31], [32], the voltage compliance of a current generator circuit [33], o…”
BackgroundRotermund, D., Ernst, U. A., & Pawelzik, K. R. (2019) · HardwareX · doi:10.1016/j.ohx.2019.e00078 · Cited by 8
A Biomimetic, SoC-Based Neural Stimulator for Novel Arbitrary-Waveform Stimulation Protocols
Culaclii, S., Wang, P., Taccola, G., Yang, W., Bailey, B., Chen, Y., Lo, Y., & Liu, W. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.697731 · Cited by 6
“Several state-of-the-art SoC-based designs, targeting implantable applications, have been shown to support arbitrary stimulation waveforms (Noorsal et al., 2012; Yip et al., 2015; Kassiri et al., 2017; Piech et al., 2020).”
BackgroundBarbruni, G. L., Ghezzi, D., & Carrara, S. (2023) · IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine · doi:10.1109/mssc.2023.3246004 · Cited by 7
“Therefore, a series R C s dl - is instead used [8].”
BackgroundMethodLee, E. K. F., Matei, E., Gang, V. Z., Shi, J., & Zadeh, A. (2014) · Custom Integrated Circuits Conference · doi:10.1109/cicc.2014.6946072 · Cited by 7
Pepin, E., Micheletti, D., Perlmutter, S. I., & Rudell, J. C. (2014) · IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS) · doi:10.1109/biocas.2014.6981712 · Cited by 7
A floating high-voltage level-shifter with high area efficiency for biomedical implants
Haas, M., & Ortmanns, M. (2016) · Conference on Ph.D. Research in Microelectronics and Electronics · doi:10.1109/prime.2016.7519451 · Cited by 7
“For digital signals with very low duty cycles this might be acceptable, otherwise the power consumption must be reduced by building a latched LS as it was discussed in [5].”
BackgroundSelf-citationAdvances in Neural Recording and Stimulation Devices
Xu, J., Nguyen, A. T., & Yang, Z. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813068-1.00013-0 · Cited by 7
Lee, T., & Je, M. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits & Systems II Express Briefs · doi:10.1109/tcsii.2020.3046451 · Cited by 7
An external control unit implemented for stimulator ASIC testing
Noorsal, E., Sooksood, K., Xu, H., & Rizman, Z. I. (2018) · Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences · doi:10.4314/jfas.v9i6s.54 · Cited by 6
“Each LSU is equipped with a voltage compliance monitoring circuit to check the voltage compliance problem if the stimulator output voltage has reached the supply rail voltage [11].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Noorsal, E., Sooksood, K., Xu, H., Hornig, R., Becker, J., & Ortmanns, M.
- Affiliations
- Universität Ulm (DE)
- Bundesnetzagentur (DE)
- Venue
- IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits
- Published
- 2012-01
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 244-256
- ISSN
- 0018-9200 (ISSN-L)
- 1558-173X
- OpenAlex
- W1971046436
- Cited by
- 212
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 9.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Analog and Mixed-Signal Circuit Design
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › CCD and CMOS Imaging Sensors
- Keywords
- epiretinal implants, voltage compliance, clock gating, power efficiency, retinal prosthesis, platinum black electrodes
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