Origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation.

“That is, when a mother responds promptly and effectively to her infant’s distress, this experience is believed to modulate the infant’s immediate arousal and to function as a learning experience for the infant (Bridges & Grolnick, 1995; Calkins, 1994; Cassidy, 1994; Kopp, 1989).”

“For example, Thompson (1994) and Calkins (1994) suggested that risk for”

“Thus, maternal behaviors moderated the relation between toddlers’ peer inhibition and preschoolers’ social reticence.”

“…emotion ''scripts'' for the child, and (c) maternal encouragement of autonomy as the child learns how to regulate independently of the mother (e.g., Calkins, 1994; Calkins & Johnson, 1998; Casey & Fuller, 1994; Denham, Renwick, & Holt, 1991; Eisenberg et al., 1999; Feldman, Greenbaum, & Yirmiya,…”

“Indeed, the combination of early language delays and difficulties with impulse control and emotion regulation place typically developing children at heightened risk for aggression ( Calkins 1994; Hay 2007; Moffitt 1993).”

“Notions of self-control are discussed in the psychological literature in relation to the development of motor skills, attention and cognition, and with regard to emotion (Calkins, 1994; Gross, 1999; Posner & Rothbart, 2000).”

“Calkins (1994) proposed that mothers’ insensitive responses to infant distress can contribute to escalated distress in the moment, negative beliefs and cognitions about the social environment, and a maladaptive regulatory style.”

“High levels of negative emotionality and low regulation are presumably associated with high levels of behavior problems ( Calkins, 1994; Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, et al., 1996; Eisenberg, Fabes, et al., 2000).”

“Children’s emotional regulation is an integral construct within recent theoretical models explicating processes related to developmental dysfunction (e.g., Calkins, 1994; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1992; Thompson, 1994).”

“Behavioral and emotional regulation refer to processes that serve to manage arousal and support adaptive social and nonsocial responses (Calkins, 1994; Thompson, 1994).”

“The development of emotion regulation can be understood as a gradual transfer from mostly external regulation at infancy to predominantly internal regulation in young children (Calkins, 1994).”

“in certain behaviors, such as negative emotionality and uncontrolled behavior, that are characteristic externalizing problem behaviors (Campbell, 2002), and they may differentiate normative declines in externalizing behaviors from more chronic and problematic pathways (Calkins, 1994; Calkins & Fox, 2002; Posner & Roth…”

“manage the child's emotions and actions may create further difficulties (Calkins, 1994; Fox & Calkins, 1993).”

“By the time a child is ready to enter school, behavioral and emotional regulation patterns may be firmly established to the extent that they influence early personality and social-interaction skills and contribute to problematic patterns of behavior ( Calkins, 1994; Cicchetti, Ganiban, & Barnett, 1991; Cole, Michel, &…”

“The development of behavioral and physiological systems to regulate emotion occurs rapidly in early infancy and is dependent on experience and, most important, experience in social interactions with parents (Calkins, 1994; Gunnar & Donzella, 2002; Schore, 2000; Tronick, 1989).”

“Because the lack of emotion regulation skills contributes to aggressive or withdrawn behavior (Calkins, 1994; Eisenberg et al., 1993, 1994; Cicchetti, Ackerman & Izard, 1995; Rubin, Coplan, Fox & Calkins, 1995), failure to acquire these skills may lead to difficulties in areas such as social competence.”

“The ability to exercise self-control over the expression of emotion, particularly negative emotions, and emotion-related behavior, develops over the first years of life and has particular importance for the developmentof appropriate and adaptivesocial behavior during the preschool and school years ( Calkins, 1994, in…”

“The links between NA and EFF may offer support to the proposal made by Calkins (1994), Calkins and Degnan (2006) and supported during infancy by Stifter and Spinrad (2002) that temperamental negative reactivity may compromise the effective development of attentional and inhibitory mechanisms.”

“Calkins (1994) proposed a developmental pathway to emotion regulation that involves child's behavioral traits (e.g., reactivity/resistance in response to frustration and adaptability/reactivity in response to novelty) and regulatory style.”

“…have focused more on how proximal factors such as child characteristics shape children's ability to control their behavior and attention (Calkins, 1994; Dennis, 2006; Eisenberg et al., 2003; Eisenberg, Zhou, et al., 2005; Kochanska et al., 2000; Kopp, 1982; Olson, Bates, Sandy, &…”

“This is conceptually intuitive given that the ability to regulate one’s own emotions develops within the context of caregiver – child interactions and is both a function of an infant’s own abilities to self-regulate and the abilities of the caregiver to recognize and respond to the infant’s needs for assistance with r…”

“Characteristics of the child self-regulation, and cooperation with others such as individual differences in arousal and may set the stage for escalating problems in irritability (e.g., Campos, Campos, & Barrett, young children with early difficulties. 1989; Calkins, 1994) obviously play a role.”

“Such researchers as Fox and Calkins (1993), and Kagan and his colleagues (e.”

“For young children, caregivers are a critical external factor in emotion regulation, as they help children regulate their arousal and emotional states (Calkins, 1994; Kopp, 1989).”

“…to attain social goals, engage effectively in complex interpersonal interaction, make and maintain friendships, gain entry to social groups and achieve peer acceptance, is a vitally important domain of child development (Calkins, 1994; Corsario, 1985; Denham, 1998; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1992).”

“Moore and Calkins (2004) found that infants in dyads exhibiting lower synchrony in the Face-to-Face Still-Face Paradigm (FFSFP; Tronick, Als, Adamson, Wise, & Brazelton, 1978) showed higher cardiac arousal and failed to show RSA withdrawal (measured as a decrease from baseline) during mothers’ still face and, when mot…”

“Children who fail to develop self-regulation skills are more likely to exhibit externalizing behavior problems (Calkins, 1994; Eisenberg et al., 2000) and, subsequently, are at high risk for continued aggression and related problems (Tremblay, 2004).”

“Certainly, good theoretical support exists for the role of early emotional dysregulation in anxious depressive disorders (Calkins, 1994; Dahl, 2003).”

“…a similarity in emotional arousal that the children experienced during cognitive processing of each of the tasks, which in turn may be a consequence of their relative immaturity in capacity for self-regulatory control of emotions [Calkins, 1994; Levesque et al., 2004; Posner and Rothbart, 2000].”

“Infants who show high rates of negative emotionality, particularly characterized by the persistent dysregulation of anger, would be expected to place exceptional burdens on caregivers (Calkins, 1994; Cole & Zahn-Waxler, 1992).”

“…motoric, and physiological systems are developing and becoming coordinated (Lewis, Hitchcock, & Sullivan, 2004), parents’ role as external regulators of emotion shifts to that of cocreating regulatory systems (Calkins, 1994; Campos, Frankel, & Camras, 2004; Crockenberg & Leerkes, 2004; Kopp, 1982).”

“Previous investigations have suggested that NE may compromise developing regulatory systems (e.g., Calkins, 2002; Calkins & Degnan, 2006; Stifter & Spinrad, 2002) and the findings in the current investigation support this idea.”

“Calkins (1994) has specified two domains of influence that are important to the development of emotion regulation: (1) internal sources including innate neuroregulatory systems, behavioral traits, and cognitive components of the child; and (2) external sources including interactive caregiving styles of parents, regula…”

“Emotion regulation is a foundational skill considered to be integral to normative development and adaptive functioning across multiple domains [3,4].”

“Thus, it is likely that individual differences in temperament interact with these contextual/relational variables in the development of emotion regulation (e.g. Calkins, 1994).”

“Email: KLGratz@aol.com Emotion regulation is a foundational skill considered to be integral to normative development and adaptive functioning across multiple domains (Calkins, 1994; Cole, Michel, & Teti, 1994).”

“Importantly, ER is a dynamic process that involves multidirectional relationships between intrapersonal characteristics of the child, including temperament and reactivity, and interpersonal factors, including the emotional climate of the caregiving environment and other sociocultural processes (Calkins, 1994).”

“regulatory mechanisms (Calkins, 1994; Morris et al., 2007).”

“The ability to control and modulate emotional stimulation is thought to provide the foundation for capacity to form social relationships (Calkins, 1994; Cicchetti, Ganiban, & Barnett, 1991; Snyder, Schrepferman, & St. Peter, 1997).”

“The early childhood period is especially important to the internalization of children’s self-regulation through interactions with their parents and the concurrent emergence of individual differences in children’s behavior problems (Calkins, 1994).”

“For example, young children who have low thresholds of reactivity in the limbic structures mediating fear and defense, display behavioral inhibition, or wariness in the face of novelty (Calkins, 1994; Fox, Calkins, & Bell, 1994; Kagan, Reznick, & Snidman, 1988).”

“During toddlerhood, significant developments are occurring in child self-regulation that lay the foundation for the autonomous behavior necessary to make the transition to school and that create opportunities for individual differences in child functioning to emerge (Calkins, 1994; Kopp, 1982; Sroufe, 1995).”

“Selecting an appropriate and effective tactic is a skill that has obvious implications for social adjustment (Calkins, 1994; Eisenberg et al., 2004), as well as academic outcomes (e.g., Graziano et al., 2007).”

“There are multiple sources of influence, and the development of emotion regulation skills can be thought of as an incremental progression involving the successful integration of biological, socio-emotional, and cognitive experiences (Calkins, 1994; Cicchetti et al., 1991; Gross & Munoz, 1995).”

“In this way, emotional competence is thought to arise through experiences with the social environment with parents exerting a strong influence on the socialization of emotional expression skills ( Calkins, 1994; Kopp, 1989; Saarni, 1999).”

“…of childhood disruptive behaviors that focused on mechanisms and moderating factors, highlighting variations in developmental patterns of problem behaviors for boys and girls (Calkins, 1994, 2004, 2009; Calkins & Keane, 2004; Degnan, Calkins, Keane, & Hill-Soderlund, 2008; Hill et al., 2006).”

“Infancy is thought to be an important period for the emergence of characteristic affective styles (Calkins, 1994; Malatesta, Culver, Rich-Tesman, & Shepard, 1989; Tronick, 1989).”

“Emotion regulation skills are critical for appropriate and adaptive social behavior during preschool and school years (Calkins, 1994; Thompson, 1994).”

“Our findings support the proposition that the development of ER skills reflect both internal and external factors and their interactions (Calkins, 1994).”

“The direction of stress’ effects depends on the way in which people cope with it. Emotion regulation involves the process of regulating emotional arousal and emotional expressions flexibly according to environmental demands ( Calkins 1994; Thompson 1994).”

“Emotion regulation is known to develop in conjunction with cognition, rapidly maturing during early childhood (Calkins, 1994) and through the influence of observational learning, modeling, and social referencing (Morris et al.”

“mechanisms may predispose an infant to behave in a certain manner [128].”

“that children with similar reactive temperament, a propensity that has been associated with self-regulation difficulties, show a variety of outcomes later in childhood (Calkins, 1994).”

“Externalizing problems in particular are defined by emotional and behavioral lability, and the underregulation of negative affect is hypothesized to be a causal factor in the etiology of oppositional defiant disorder and attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (Barkley, 1997; Calkins, 1994; Eisenberg, Smith, Sadovsky,…”

“…variables and ER strategies are consistent with theoretical propositions that temperament, to a significant degree, underpins the development of ER (Calkins, 1994; Calkins & Hill, 2007) and that the presence of certain temperamental predispositions predicts the use of specific regulatory…”

“While it has been proposed that, in infancy, temperament dispositions may be closely related to ER skill acquisition (e.g., Calkins 1994 ), our hypotheses suggest that we regard temperament and ER as separable constructs in the age groups under consideration.”

“…of selfregulation, temperamental and biological substrates of self-regulation have been the focus of considerable theoretical (Beauchaine, 2001; Calkins, 1994; Davidson, Fox & Kalin, 2007; Fox, 1994; Lewis, 2005) and empirical work (Blair, 2003; Calkins & Dedmon, 2000; Calkins & Keane, 2004).”

“spond, and it is these behaviors that may become integrated into patterns of social and emotional functioning that are problematic (Calkins, 1994).”

“Calkins’ (1994) developmental theory of ER suggests the effects of behavioral traits (e.g., emotional reactivity) on social outcomes are mediated by individual differences in ER.”

“This growing interest stems from findings that effective emotion management confers a wide range of interpersonal, academic, and mental health benefits for children (e.g., Calkins, 1994; Eisenberg et al., 1995, 2004; Keane & Calkins, 2004; Saarni, Campos, Camras, & Witherington, 2006).”

“In addition, they also may be constrained in the development of appropriate regulatory behaviors that could serve to alleviate their distress (Calkins, 1994; Calkins & Fox, 1992; Calkins & Johnson, 1998), potentially leading to later difficulties with impulsivity, aggression, and other types of…”

“Much of this ability to regulate emotions develops from interaction with primary caregivers, from the childs inborn temperament, and from the match between caregiving and temperament ( Calkins, 1994 ).”

“Various components of self-regulation emerge in early childhood, such as temperament-based effortful control (Eisenberg, Smith, Sadovsky, & Spinrad, 2004) and inhibitory control (Kochanska, Murray, Jacques, Koenig, & Vandegeest, 1996), emotion regulation (Calkins, 1994), and behavioral regulation (e.”

“Clinically significant externalizing and internalizing problems can be understood as disorders of emotion regulation (e.g., Bradley, 2000; Calkins, 1994; Calkins, Howse, & Philippot, 2004).”

“These findings are in line with theoretical propositions and outlines of developmental pathways by Calkins (1994) and Rubin (1993). Nachmias, Gunnar, Mangelsdorf, Parritz, and Buss (1996) reported a somewhat similar moderating effect of attachment security on the effects of inhibited temperament, but here the outcome…”

“Calkins and Fox have argued that the period from infancy to toddlerhood is particularly important for the developmentofself-regulation(Calkins,1994;Fox&Calkins,1993).”