Psychology as the science of self-reports and finger movements: whatever happened to actual behavior?
Abstract
Psychology calls itself the science of behavior, and the American Psychological Association's current "Decade of Behavior" was intended to increase awareness and appreciation of this aspect of the science. Yet some psychological subdisciplines have never directly studied behavior, and studies on behavior are dwindling rapidly in other subdisciplines. We discuss the eclipse of behavior in personality and social psychology, in which direct observation of behavior has been increasingly supplanted by introspective self-reports, hypothetical scenarios, and questionnaire ratings. We advocate a renewed commitment to including direct observation of behavior whenever possible and in at least a healthy minority of research projects.
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Self-report measures are subject to a wide array of biases, including memory bias and treatment expectations.
“A final limitation of mindfulness research in general is the widespread reliance on self-report measures, which are subject to a wide array of biases, including memory bias (Schwarz, 1999; Baumeister et al., 2007) and treatment expectations (Howard and Dailey, 1979; Howard, 1980; Geers and Rose, 2011).”
From Mindfulness Training Alters Emotional Memory Recall Compared to Active Controls: Support for an Emotional Information Processing Model of Mindfulness (2012) · cites this paper as Baumeister et al., 2007
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“Donation intentions may differ from actual donation behavior (Baumeister et al., 2007; Cha et al., 2020).”
People's perceptions of themselves are known to be poor predictors of their behavior.
“Given that people's perceptions of themselves are known to be poor predictors of their behavior (Baumeister et al., 2007)”
From Schizotypy and mindfulness: Magical thinking without suspiciousness characterizes mindfulness meditators (2016) · cites this paper as Baumeister et al., 2007
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- Authors
- Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Funder, D. C.
- Affiliations
- Florida State University (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- University of California, Riverside (US)
- Corresponding author
- Vohs, Kathleen D.
- Venue
- Perspectives on Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2007-12
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 396-403
- ISSN
- 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-6924
- OpenAlex
- W2030988365
- Cited by
- 1,629
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 70 · 2025: 73 · 2024: 133 · 2023: 99 · 2022: 109 · 2021: 139 · 2020: 147 · 2019: 106 · 2018: 118 · 2017: 92 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 74 · 2013: 64 · 2012: 67
- FWCI
- 148.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
- Keywords
- behavior, self-report, self-reflection, direct observation, personality psychology, social psychology, hypothetical scenarios
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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