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Cited by 9Teaching and Learning ProgrammingExperimental Learning in EngineeringEducation and Critical Thinking Development

Incorporating Computational Thinking Into Virtual Laboratories to Enhance Learning Motivation, Engagement, and Higher‐Order Thinking Skills

Open access
Wu, Ting‐Ting, Sarwono, Edi, Huang, Yueh‐Min·2025·Journal of Computer Assisted Learning
DOI 10.1111/jcal.70017
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Abstract

Background: Virtual laboratories are used to supplement or even replace physical laboratories in engineering education. Although these virtual laboratories allow students to learn foundational experimental skills, they do not provide the learners with the chance to develop higher‐order thinking skills (HOTS). Computational thinking (CT) is an approach to problem‐solving. Incorporating the CT approach into virtual laboratories to enhance problem‐solving skills and critical thinking skills is still understudied. Objectives: This study investigated the effect of incorporating the CT approach into virtual laboratories on the learning motivation, engagement, and HOTS of students. Methods: A quasi‐experimental study was conducted to investigate the impact of the proposed approach. Forty‐eight undergraduate electrical engineering students participated in this study. Pre‐ and post‐test questionnaire data on learning motivation, engagement, and HOTS were collected from both an experimental group that utilised virtual laboratories and a computational thinking approach and a control group that used virtual laboratories only. Results and Conclusions: The result of the quantitative analysis revealed that incorporating the CT approach into virtual laboratories resulted in a significant difference in learning motivation, engagement, and HOTS between the experimental and control groups. These findings point out that incorporating the CT approach into virtual laboratories positively affects the learning motivation, engagement, and HOTS of learners who are enrolled in practical courses.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Incorporating computational thinking (CT) into a virtual laboratory for undergraduate electrical engineering practical work significantly improved students’ learning motivation, engagement, and higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) compared with virtual laboratories alone. The study reports significant ANCOVA effects for all three outcomes, though it is limited by a small, short-term, single-course quasi-experiment.

Key findings

  • Learning motivation was significantly higher in the CT-plus-virtual-laboratory group than in the virtual-laboratory-only group: ANCOVA F = 15.560, p < 0.001, η² = 0.257; post-test means were experimental M = 4.3150, SD = 0.43488 vs. control M = 3.9633, SD = 0.35266.
  • Student engagement was significantly higher in the experimental group: ANCOVA F = 17.548, p < 0.001, η² = 0.281; post-test means were experimental M = 4.5167, SD = 0.32668 vs. control M = 4.1029, SD = 0.35793.
  • HOTS was significantly higher in the experimental group: ANCOVA F = 12.927, p < 0.001, η² = 0.223; post-test means were experimental M = 4.5150, SD = 0.33539 vs. control M = 4.0492, SD = 0.53693.
  • Paired t-tests showed significant pre-to-post gains only in the experimental group for motivation (t = −4.478, p < 0.001), engagement (t = −4.274, p < 0.001), and HOTS (t = −4.461, p < 0.001); control-group gains were not statistically significant.

Methods

  • Quasi-experimental pre-/post-test design with control and experimental groups; 48 freshman undergraduate electrical engineering students at an Indonesian public university, average age 18, assigned to control (n = 24) and experimental (n = 24) groups in a basic electrical and electronics course.
  • Both groups used ElectricVLab, a 3D virtual laboratory, over seven meetings; the experimental group additionally received a CT approach based on decomposition, generalisation, abstraction, algorithmic thinking, and evaluation, while the control group used virtual laboratories only.
  • Data were collected via pre- and post-questionnaires on learning motivation (modified MSLQ, 22 items, α = 0.936), student engagement (17 items, α = 0.912), and HOTS (11 items, α = 0.874); analysis used descriptive statistics, paired t-tests, and ANCOVA with pretest scores as covariate in IBM SPSS Statistics version 24.0.

Limitations

  • Stated by the authors: the small sample size limits generalisability; the research duration was short; participants were new students unfamiliar with electrical laboratory components and equipment; and some computer devices had graphics failures when running the simulation.
  • Evident from the text: the quasi-experimental design used intact groups rather than random assignment, and the outcomes rely on self-report Likert-scale questionnaires, which limits causal and objective performance claims.
  • Evident from the text: the study was conducted in one basic electrical and electronics course at a single Indonesian public university, so findings may not transfer to other engineering contexts or student populations.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/jcal.70017

Cites

102 of 102 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

13 of 42 cited sources checked · 7 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Incorporating computational concepts into learning activities can enhance student engagement.

    “For example, De Santo et al. ( 2022) suggest that by incorporating computational concepts into learning activities, CT can enhance student engagement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites De Santo et al. 2022 source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) says the study taught computational thinking (CT) through notebook-based activities and found that gamification increased engagement with those notebooks. The Results section on RQ3 likewise reports greater engagement among students receiving gamified feedback. These passages support increased engagement in a CT learning activity, but attribute the increase to gamified feedback, not to incorporating computational concepts themselves. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Online laboratories effectively provide engineering students with real-world learning opportunities and practical equipment that increase their motivation.

    “Similar studies have indicated that online laboratories effectively provide engineering students with real-world learning opportunities and practical equipment that increase their motivation (Chu and Fang 2015;Ekmekci and Gulacar 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Chu and Fang 2015 source
    • cites Ekmekci and Gulacar 2015 source

      The Abstract reports that a computer-based activity improved pre-service mathematics and science teachers’ learning of electric circuits. It does not establish that online laboratories give engineering students access to real-world learning opportunities or practical equipment, or that they increase motivation. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    CT is a strategy for developing and improving HOTS among students.

    “and as a strategy for developing and improving HOTS among students (Zaharin et al. 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zaharin et al. 2018 source
  • Premisecitation

    In active learning, learning outcomes are primarily a function of student engagement rather than the level of prior knowledge.

    “In active learning, learning outcomes are primarily a function of student engagement rather than the level of prior knowledge (De Santo et al. 2022;Sung et al. 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites De Santo et al. 2022 source

      In “Computational Notebooks in a Distance Learning Context” (page unavailable), the paper reports that more active students had higher pass rates and that laboratory performance was a stronger predictor of learning outcomes than initial knowledge. But laboratory performance is not the same as engagement, and the paper says initial knowledge was also strongly linked to outcomes. Its findings in one non-CS course do not establish the claim as a general rule for active learning. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Sung et al. 2021 source
  • Premisecitation

    Integrating CT concepts into the learning process increases student motivation towards learning.

    “A similar study investigated the integration of CT concepts into the learning process (Peng et al. 2023).Their results indicated that their instructional strategies effectively increased student motivation towards learning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peng et al. 2023 source

      Section 5.2 reports that instruction using fundamental CT concepts enhanced students’ writing motivation more than conventional teaching. The citing sentence broadens this finding to motivation toward learning generally; the study’s reported result concerns English writing. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14
  • May combine two claims. 15
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CT design activities and subject matter are utilised to support students in engaging in HOTS and increasing their involvement in their studies.

    “CT design activities and subject matter are utilised to support students in engaging in HOTS and increasing their involvement in their studies (Yadav et al. 2017).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yadav et al. 2017 source

      In “Computational thinking is often mistakenly equated with using computer technology” (page unavailable), the paper describes subject-area design activities and reports that exposure to computational thinking may improve students’ problem-solving and critical-thinking skills, supporting the higher-order-thinking part of the claim. It says game design engages students in computational-thinking concepts, but does not establish that these activities increase their involvement in their studies. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The critical thinking skills of students can be cultivated if teachers deliberately and consistently incorporate higher-order thinking strategies, such as open discussions, inquiry-based experiments, and real-world challenges, into their teaching style.

    “The critical thinking skills of students can be cultivated if teachers deliberately and consistently incorporate higher-order thinking strategies, such as open discussions, inquiry-based experiments, and realworld challenges, into their teaching style (Sharma et al. 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sharma et al. 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Previous studies have highlighted the importance of using virtual laboratories as a tool in learning activities and laboratory work.

    “For instance, previous studies have highlighted the importance of using virtual laboratories as a tool in learning activities and laboratory work (Abdulrahman Nami Alshaikh 2022; Raja et al. 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Abdulrahman Nami Alshaikh 2022 source
    • cites Raja et al. 2021 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Students' motivation increases when they are actively engaged in CT-based learning and assigned complete responsibility.

    “Kazimoglu (2020) argued that students' motivation increases when they are actively engaged in CT-based learning and assigned complete responsibility.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kazimoglu (2020) source

      The Abstract and VII. Discussion report increased motivation to learn programming after students played a game designed to practice computational-thinking skills. The paper does not say that students were assigned complete responsibility, or establish that such responsibility increased motivation. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    HOTS can be developed through active engagement in educational activities.

    “Kim et al. (2020) argued that HOTS can be developed through active engagement in educational activities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kim et al. (2020) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    CT is a problem-solving technique.

    “Integrating CT into virtual laboratories could enhance student HOTS in practical courses because CT is a problem-solving technique (Wing 2008)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wing 2008 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The student engagement questionnaire was found to be valid and reliable in Pearson's correlation analysis and in terms of Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.912).

    “The questionnaire was found to be valid and reliable in Pearson's correlation analysis and in terms of Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.912).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Reeve and Tseng (2011) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study used a quasi-experimental research design with pre- and post-tests and control and experimental groups.

    “This study used a quasi-experimental research design with preand post-tests with control and experimental groups to investigate the effect of incorporating CT into virtual laboratories on learning motivation, engagement, and HOTS among learners who participated in a basic electrical and electronics course offered by the electrical engineering department at an Indonesian public university.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Virtual laboratories allow students to learn foundational experimental skills but do not provide learners with the chance to develop higher-order thinking skills (HOTS).

    “Although these virtual laboratories allow students to learn foundational experimental skills, they do not provide the learners with the chance to develop higher-order thinking skills (HOTS).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yang et al. (2019) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Learners in both groups were given the same questionnaire, and the same instructor taught the course using the same material.

    “Learners in both groups were given the same questionnaire, and the same instructor taught the course using the same material.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Students working in virtual laboratories often exhibit insufficient critical thinking skills and face learning difficulties during practice because they lack process-detailed operations, like using real devices.

    “According to Yang et al. (2019), students working in virtual laboratories often exhibit insufficient critical thinking skills and face learning difficulties during practice because they lack process-detailed operations, like using real devices.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yang et al. (2019) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The HOTS questionnaire was found to be valid and reliable in Pearson's correlation analysis and in terms of Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.874).

    “The questionnaire was found to be valid and reliable in Pearson's correlation analysis and in terms of Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.874).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hwang et al. (2018) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The MSLQ was found to be valid and reliable in Pearson's correlation analysis and in terms of Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.936).

    “The MSLQ was found to be valid and reliable in Pearson's correlation analysis and in terms of Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.936).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pintrich 1991

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Integrating CT allows for breaking down problem-solving into more manageable phases.

    “Integrating CT allows for breaking down problem-solving into more manageable phases (Lee et al. 2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lee et al. 2023 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    CT concepts can improve problem-solving skills in an experimental group.

    “Their study found that CT concepts can improve problemsolving skills in an experimental group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lin et al. 2024 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The learning motivation, engagement, and HOTS data were normally distributed and therefore suited to ANCOVA.

    “The data on learning motivation (s = 0.973, p = 0.342), engagement (s = 0.969, p = 0.238), and HOTS (s = 0.979, p = 0.555) were found to be normally distributed and were thus suited to ANCOVA.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Virtual laboratories used in learning new content result in an effective learning process for students and motivate them to repeat experiments freely during practical courses.

    “For example, virtual laboratories utilised in learning new content have resulted in an effective learning process for students and motivated them to repeat experiments freely during practical courses (Chakravarti et al. 2021;Pereira et al. 2012;Popović and Naumović 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Chakravarti et al. 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Pereira et al. 2012 source
    • cites Popović and Naumović 2016 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CT is pedagogically important and useful in teaching and learning activities.

    “According to Czerkawski and Lyman (2015), CT is pedagogically important and useful in teaching and learning activities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Czerkawski and Lyman (2015) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Implementing virtual laboratories positively impacts students' learning processes and engages them to repeat and conduct safe experiments independently throughout practical courses.

    “For instance, the implementation of virtual laboratories has positively impacted students' learning processes and engaged them to repeat and conduct safe experiments independently throughout practical courses (Nolen and Koretsky 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nolen and Koretsky 2018 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Student engagement is a crucial factor in success.

    “Student engagement, which refers to the active contribution of students in the learning process, is a crucial factor in success (Jung et al. 2022).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jung et al. 2022

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HOTS plays a key role in engineering education because certain scenarios require recall, and the problem cannot be identified solely on the basis of the specifics of the case.

    “HOTS plays a key role in engineering education because certain scenarios require recall, and the problem cannot be identified solely on the basis of the specifics of the case (Asok et al. 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Asok et al. 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CT may enhance students' ability to think critically, to solve problems, to identify and arrange information, and to be highly motivated.

    “It may also enhance their ability to think critically, to solve problems, to identify and arrange information, and to be highly motivated (Shanmugam et al. 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shanmugam et al. 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    CT has been used as an investigational and problem-solving technique involving concepts of computer science, instruments, and procedures in STEM fields.

    “that has been used both as an investigational and problemsolving technique involving concepts of computer science, instruments, and procedures in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (Lee et al. 2020)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lee et al. 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The questionnaires used had acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.936 for learning motivation, 0.912 for student engagement, and 0.874 for HOTS).

    “| Learning motivation | 0.936 | Pintrich (1991) |”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Pintrich (1991)
    • cites Reeve and Tseng (2011) source
    • cites Hwang et al. (2018) source
24 of 24

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The experimental and control groups were comparable at baseline on learning motivation, engagement, and HOTS before the intervention.

    “During the first meeting, both the experimental and control groups completed pre-tests on their motivation (Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire, MSLQ), engagement, and HOTS.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The virtual laboratory simulations faithfully represent the behaviour of real electrical circuits, so that learning outcomes obtained in them transfer to practical work in engineering education.

    “Therefore, incorporating CT into virtual laboratory activities fills the gap between theory and real-world application, making practical studying more enjoyable, safe, and flexible, and increasing the level of motivation and engagement.”
2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

  • Control-group engagement change SD is impossibly small

    Major

    The reported SD of the control group's paired pre-post differences is 0.10558. It cannot be smaller than the difference between the reported pre-test and post-test SDs, 0.52995 − 0.35793 = 0.17202. This also calls into question the reported paired t-test and its conclusion of no significant change.

    Reported 0.10558 · recomputed 0.17202

1 of 1

Cited works that were retracted

Works this paper cites that were later retracted, from the retraction notices publishers deposit. Major when the notice came out before this paper was published.

  • Cites a retracted work: 10.3991/ijet.v16i02.18755

    Major

    The cited work was retracted on 2022-07-04 (notice 10.3991/ijet.v16i02.18755), before this paper was published (2025-03-04). Its authors could have known.

    Cited work 10.3991/ijet.v16i02.18755 · retracted 2022-07-04 · notice 10.3991/ijet.v16i02.18755 · this paper published 2025-03-04

1 of 1

Cites

1 retracted

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Chakravarti P. K., 2021, A Review on Virtual Lab: A Simulator for Physical Lab, IJISET‐International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, 8, 436

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Wu, T., Sarwono, E., & Huang, Y.
Affiliations
  • National Yunlin University of Science and Technology (TW)
  • State University of Semarang (ID)
  • National Cheng Kung University (TW)
Corresponding author
Huang, Yueh‐Min
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2025-03-04
Volume
41
Issue
2
ISSN
  • 0266-4909 (ISSN-L)
  • 1365-2729
DOI
10.1111/jcal.70017
OpenAlex
W4408317479
Semantic Scholar
63b1125de5b2727a16f712df7fc422730381b357
Cited by
9
References
101
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 5
FWCI
8.14
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (publishedVersion)
Funders
National Science and Technology Council (NSTC 112‐2515‐S‐224‐001, MOST 110‐2511‐H‐224‐003‐MY3, MOST 111‐2628‐H‐224‐001‐MY3)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Teaching and Learning Programming
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Media Technology › Experimental Learning in Engineering
  • Social Sciences › Education › Education and Critical Thinking Development
Keywords
computational thinking, virtual laboratory, student motivation, student engagement, higher-order thinking skills, engineering education, electrical engineering students, practical classes, problem-solving skills, critical thinking

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