Long covid—mechanisms, risk factors, and management
Abstract
Since its emergence in Wuhan, China, covid-19 has spread and had a profound effect on the lives and health of people around the globe. As of 4 July 2021, more than 183 million confirmed cases of covid-19 had been recorded worldwide, and 3.97 million deaths. Recent evidence has shown that a range of persistent symptoms can remain long after the acute SARS-CoV-2 infection, and this condition is now coined long covid by recognized research institutes. Studies have shown that long covid can affect the whole spectrum of people with covid-19, from those with very mild acute disease to the most severe forms. Like acute covid-19, long covid can involve multiple organs and can affect many systems including, but not limited to, the respiratory, cardiovascular, neurological, gastrointestinal, and musculoskeletal systems. The symptoms of long covid include fatigue, dyspnea, cardiac abnormalities, cognitive impairment, sleep disturbances, symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, muscle pain, concentration problems, and headache. This review summarizes studies of the long term effects of covid-19 in hospitalized and non-hospitalized patients and describes the persistent symptoms they endure. Risk factors for acute covid-19 and long covid and possible therapeutic options are also discussed.
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Long COVID involves ongoing symptoms that appear right after COVID-19 infection.
“Long COVID includes persisting symptoms, following directly after an infection with the COVID-19 virus”
From Health, well-being, and persisting symptoms in the pandemic: What is the role of psychological flexibility? (2022) · cites this paper as Crook et al., 2021
Pre-existing comorbidities, such as asthma, diabetes, obesity, and immunosuppressive conditions, can also be associated with higher risks of long COVID.
“Since pre-existing comorbidities, such as asthma, diabetes, obesity, and immunosuppressive conditions, can also be associated with higher risks of long COVID [3,7,8]”
From Protective effect of COVID-19 vaccination against long COVID syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as [3]
Among reported risk factors of developing long COVID, such as older age, female sex, and underlying comorbidities, the severity of the acute infection is substantial.
“Among the reported risk factors of developing long COVID, such as older age, female sex, and underlying comorbidities [3,4], the severity of the acute infection is substantial [31,32].”
From Protective effect of COVID-19 vaccination against long COVID syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as [3]
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“Regular disease surveillance and monitoring, implementation of related health promotion strategies, plus continuous efforts in researching for the best vaccines and treatment options may help in lowering the prevalence of PCS [17, 18].”
BackgroundCeban, F., Kulzhabayeva, D., Rodrigues, N. B., Vincenzo, J. D. D., Gill, H., Subramaniapillai, M., Lui, L. M. W., Cao, B., Mansur, R. B., Ho, R., et al. (2023) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2023.03.022 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“(Crook et al., 2021) In keeping with the foregoing paradigm, vaccination may decrease the intensity of the acute phase immune response and enable faster clearance of SARS-CoV-2, preventing or lessening the extent of organ damage, immune dysfunction, and exacerbation of pre-existing disease, as well as enabling the cle…”
BackgroundVojdani, A., Vojdani, E., Saidara, E., & Maes, M. H. J. (2023) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v15020400 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Luo, D., Mei, B., Wang, P., Li, X.-J., Chen, X.-P., Wei, G., Kuang, F., Li, B., & Su, S. (2023) · Clinical Microbiology and Infection · doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2023.10.016 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Li, J., Zhou, Y., Ma, J., Zhang, Q., Shao, J., Liang, S., Yu, Y., Li, W., & Wang, C. (2023) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-023-01640-z · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Fernández-de-las-Peñas, C., Rodríguez-Jiménez, J., Cancela-Cilleruelo, I., Guerrero-Peral, Á., Martín-Guerrero, J., García-Azorín, D., Cornejo-Mazzuchelli, A., Hernández-Barrera, V., & Pellicer-Valero, Ó. (2022) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.42106 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Al‐Hakeim, H. K., Al-Rubaye, H. T., Al-Hadrawi, D. S., Almulla, A. F., & Maes, M. H. J. (2022) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-022-01836-9 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2 infection and persistence throughout the human body and brainPreprint
Chertow, D. S., Stein, S. R., Ramelli, S., Grazioli, A., Chung, J., Singh, M., Yinda, C., Winkler, C. W., Dickey, J. M., Ylaya, K., et al. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1139035/v1 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Robust induction of B cell and T cell responses by a third dose of inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine
Liu, Y., Zeng, Q., Deng, C., Li, M., Li, L., Liu, D., Liu, M., Ruan, X., Mei, J., Mo, R., et al. (2022) · Cell Discovery · doi:10.1038/s41421-022-00373-7 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Chuang, H., Lin, C.-W., Hsiao, M., Wang, T., & Liang, H. (2023) · Journal of the Formosan Medical Association · doi:10.1016/j.jfma.2023.03.022 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Tana, C., Bentivegna, E., Cho, S.-J., Harriott, A. M., García-Azorín, D., Labastida-Ramírez, A., Ornello, R., Raffaelli, B., Beltran, E., Ruscheweyh, R., et al. (2022) · The Journal of Headache and Pain · doi:10.1186/s10194-022-01450-8 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Molecular characteristics, immune evasion, and impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants
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Cardiometabolic outcomes up to 12 months after COVID-19 infection. A matched cohort study in the UK
Rezel‐Potts, E., Douiri, A., Sun, X., Chowienczyk, P., Shah, A. M., & Gulliford, M. C. (2022) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004052 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is increasingly recognised as a multisystem condition [1].”
BackgroundPazukhina, E., Andreeva, M., Spiridonova, E., Bobkova, P., Shikhaleva, A., El-Taravi, Y., Rumyantsev, M. A., Gamirova, A., Bairashevskaia, A., Petrova, P., et al. (2022) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-022-02448-4 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“This wide range of symptoms occurring in the weeks to months after SARS-CoV-2 infection has been referred to as either long COVID, post-COVID-19 condition, or post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC), amongst other names [2].”
BackgroundOne‐year cognitive follow‐up of COVID‐19 hospitalized patients
Ferrucci, R., Dini, M., Rosci, C. E., Capozza, A., Groppo, E., Reitano, M. R., Allocco, E., Poletti, B., Brugnera, A., Bai, F., et al. (2022) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.15324 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“However, other factors such as cytokine- related hyperinflammation, coagulopathy, blood– brain barrier breakdown and production of antineuronal antibodies [16,20,40] might also play a significant role.”
BackgroundLong COVID: The Nature of Thrombotic Sequelae Determines the Necessity of Early Anticoagulation
Wang, C., Yu, C.-Y., Jing, H., Wu, X.-M., Novakovic, V., Xie, R., & Shi, J.-L. (2022) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2022.861703 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
COVID ‐19 infection and the broader impacts of the pandemic on healthcare workers
Smallwood, N., Harrex, W., Rees, M., Willis, K., & Bennett, C. M. (2022) · Respirology · doi:10.1111/resp.14208 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“SARS-CoV-2, the development of COVID-19 symptoms and possible progression to ‘post-COVID-19 syndrome’ (also known as ‘Long-COVID’).(3) COVID-19 is the acute disease and post-COVID-19 syndrome is defined as physical and mental health consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection that persist for longer than 3 months.”
BackgroundLiving with “long COVID”: A systematic review and meta-synthesis of qualitative evidence
Hossain, M. M., Das, J., Rahman, F., Nesa, F., Hossain, P., Islam, A. M. K., Tasnim, S., Faizah, F., Mazumder, H., Purohit, N., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0281884 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Hejbøl, E. K., Harbo, T., Agergaard, J., Madsen, L. B., Pedersen, T. H., Østergaard, L. J., Andersen, H., Schrøder, H. D., & Tankişi, H. (2022) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.15435 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Quan, M., Wang, X., Gong, M., Wang, Q., Li, Y., & Jia, J. (2023) · The Lancet Regional Health - Western Pacific · doi:10.1016/j.lanwpc.2023.100836 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Yong, S. J., Halim, A., Halim, M., Liu, S., Aljeldah, M. M., Shammari, B. R. A., Alwarthan, S. M., Alhajri, M. M., Alawfi, A., Alshengeti, A., et al. (2023) · Reviews in Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/rmv.2424 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“The absence of statistical significance for the remaining 12 meta‐ analysed biomarkers (i.e., ferritin, IL‐10, neutrophils, neutrophil‐to‐ lymphocyte ratio, monocytes, IFN‐γ, TNF‐α, platelets, NT‐Pro‐BNP, troponin, creatinine, and fibrinogen) suggest that they may not be involved in the pathophysiology of PCS.”
BackgroundInfluentialLundberg, L., Leach, S., Xu, Y., Martikainen, J., Santosa, A., Gisslén, M., Li, H., Nyberg, F., & Bygdell, M. (2023) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2023-076990 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“8 Furthermore, by using machine learning algorithms a recent study identified four clinical phenotype clusters within the PCC group; chronic fatigue-like syndrome, respiratory syndrome, chronic pain syndrome, and neurosensorial syndrome.”
MethodPost COVID-19 condition, work ability and occupational changes in a population-based cohort
Kerksieck, P., Ballouz, T., Haile, S., Schumacher, C., Lacy, J., Domenghino, A., Fehr, J., Bauer, G., Dressel, H., Puhan, M., et al. (2023) · The Lancet Regional Health - Europe · doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2023.100671 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Epidemiology, clinical presentation, pathophysiology, and management of long COVID: an update
Su, S., Zhao, Y., Zeng, N., Liu, X., Zheng, Y., Sun, J., Zhong, Y., Wu, S., Ni, S., Gong, Y.-M., et al. (2023) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-023-02171-3 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“The WHO and the Long COVID Forum group agree that the focus of long COVID research includes improving clinical features and development of therapeutic drugs [8, 137].”
InfluentialLam, I. C. H., Wong, C. K. H., Zhang, R., Chui, C. S. L., Lai, F. T. T., Li, X., Chan, E. W., Luo, H., Zhang, Q., Man, K. K. C., et al. (2023) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.102000 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“57 The enriched expression of ACE-2 receptors in the proximal tubule of the kidney could mediate viral entry into tubular epithelial cells, causing acute tubular necrosis and proximal tubule dysfunction.”
Ioannou, G. N., Baraff, A. J., Fox, A., Shahoumian, T. A., Hickok, A. W., O’Hare, A. M., Bohnert, A. S. B., Boyko, E. J., Maciejewski, M. L., Bowling, C. B., et al. (2022) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.24359 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Patel, M. A., Knauer, M. J., Nicholson, M., Daley, M., Nynatten, L. R. V., Martin, C. M., Patterson, E. K., Cepinskas, G., Seney, S. L., Dobretzberger, V., et al. (2022) · Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1186/s10020-022-00548-8 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Legler, F., Meyer‐Arndt, L., Mödl, L., Kedor, C., Freitag, H., Stein, E., Hoppmann, U., Rust, R., Wittke, K., Siebert, N., et al. (2023) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.102146 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Alginate-Based Bio-Composites and Their Potential Applications
Zdiri, K., Cayla, A., Elamri, A., Erard, A., & Salaün, F. (2022) · Journal of Functional Biomaterials · doi:10.3390/jfb13030117 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“These features are very essential for COVID-19 prevention, and particularly for dental care [145].”
BackgroundOh, J., Lee, M., Kim, M., Kim, H. J., Lee, S. W., Rhee, S. Y., Koyanagi, A., Smith, L., Kim, M. S., Lee, H., et al. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-47176-w · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Long COVID risk and pre-COVID vaccination in an EHR-based cohort study from the RECOVER program
Brannock, M. D., Chew, R., Preiss, A., Hadley, E., Redfield, S., McMurry, J. A., Leese, P., Girvin, A. T., Crosskey, M., Zhou, A., et al. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-38388-7 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“Our selection of covariates was informed by the literature on important indicators of long COVID 10,43,44 .”
Philip, K., Owles, H., McVey, S., Pagnuco, T., Bruce, K., Brunjes, H., Banya, W., Mollica, J., Lound, A., Zumpe, S., et al. (2022) · The Lancet Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.1016/s2213-2600(22)00125-4 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Lau, R. I., Su, Q., Lau, I. S. F., Ching, J. Y., Wong, M. C. S., Lau, L. H. S., Tun, H. M., Mok, C. K. P., Chau, S. W. H., Tse, Y. K., et al. (2023) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(23)00685-0 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Long COVID in Children and Adolescents
Fainardi, V., Meoli, A., Chiopris, G., Motta, M., Skenderaj, K., Grandinetti, R., Bergomi, A., Antodaro, F., Zona, S., & Esposito, S. (2022) · Life · doi:10.3390/life12020285 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“Although the exact mechanism is still not fully understood, it is highly probable that the direct attack of SARS-CoV-2 is relevant in causing gastrointestinal symptoms either in COVID-19 or in long COVID, always referring to the proposed model in Figure 1 [27].”
BackgroundInfluentialBuonsenso, D., Piazza, M., Boner, A. L., & Bellanti, J. A. (2022) · Allergy and Asthma Proceedings · doi:10.2500/aap.2022.43.220018 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Covid-19-Induced Dysautonomia: A Menace of Sympathetic Storm
Al-Kuraishy, H. M., Al-Gareeb, A. I., Qusti, S. Y., Alshammari, E. M., Gyebi, G. A., & Batiha, G. E. (2021) · ASN NEURO · doi:10.1177/17590914211057635 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“This finding proposed that long COVID-19 is associated with persistence symptoms such as hypoxia and fatigue due to developed DSN (Crook et al., 2021).”
BackgroundOrtelli, P., Ferrazzoli, D., Sebastianelli, L., Maestri, R., Dezi, S., Spampinato, D., Saltuari, L., Alibardi, A., Engl, M., Kofler, M., et al. (2022) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.15278 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Notably, an in- depth analysis pointed out that the items contributing most to the global score were indeed those which strongly overlap with complaints typically reported by post COVID19 patients [1,2].”
BackgroundComplexity and Challenges of the Clinical Diagnosis and Management of Long COVID
O’Hare, A. M., Vig, E. K., Iwashyna, T. J., Fox, A., Taylor, J. S., Viglianti, E. M., Butler, C. R., Vranas, K. C., Helfand, M., Tuepker, A., et al. (2022) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.40332 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Burton, A., Aughterson, H., Fancourt, D., & Philip, K. (2022) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2022.38 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Thromboinflammation in long COVID—the elusive key to postinfection sequelae?
Nicolai, L., Kaiser, R. W. J., & Stark, K. (2023) · Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis · doi:10.1016/j.jtha.2023.04.039 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“estingly though, female sex is a risk factor for PASC but protective in acute COVID-19, suggesting distinct mechanisms of disease [23].”
Long COVID occurrence in COVID-19 survivors
Sugiyama, A., Miwata, K., Kitahara, Y., Okimoto, M., Abe, K., Bunthen, E., Ouoba, S., Akita, T., Tanimine, N., Ohdan, H., et al. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-10051-z · Cited by 85 · see citing works
The bidirectional association between diabetes and long-COVID-19 – A systematic review
Harding, J., Oviedo, S., Ali, M. K., Ofotokun, I., Gander, J., Patel, S. A., Magliano, D., & Patzer, R. (2022) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110202 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“, fatigue, shortness of breath, memory loss, anosmia, gastrointestinal distress) [3] and affect multiple organs and systems [4].”
BackgroundCombining L-Arginine with vitamin C improves long-COVID symptoms: The LINCOLN Survey
Izzo, R., Trimarco, V., Mone, P., Aloè, T., Marzani, M. C., Diana, A., Fazio, G., Mallardo, M., Maniscalco, M., Marazzi, G., et al. (2022) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106360 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Peter, R. S., Nieters, A., Goepel, S., Merle, U., Steinacker, J. M., Deibert, P., Friedmann‐Bette, B., Niess, A. M., Müller, B., Schilling, C., et al. (2025) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004511 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
ZHENG, C., Chen, X., Sit, C. H. P., Liang, X., Li, M., Chun‐Hang, A., & Wong, S. H. (2023) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000003280 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“Therefore, various guidelines have been established for the management of long COVID, wherein self-management and multidisciplinary rehabilitation are generally recommended owing to the persistence and heterogeneity of long COVID and the lack of effective treatments (13,14).”
BackgroundVernon, S. D., Hartle, M., Sullivan, K. A., Bell, J., Abbaszadeh, S., Unutmaz, D., & Bateman, L. (2023) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-220581 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Symptoms worsened by exertion in Long COVID may be due to the unique pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection including the ability of this virus to cause neuroinflamma-tion [17].”
Adherence to Healthy Lifestyle Prior to Infection and Risk of Post–COVID-19 Condition
Wang, S., Li, Y., Yue, Y., Yuan, C., Kang, J. H., Chavarro, J. E., Bhupathiraju, S. N., & Roberts, A. L. (2023) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2022.6555 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Ireson, J., Taylor, A., Richardson, E., Greenfield, B., & Jones, G. L. (2022) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.13518 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“Long Covid is a novel and enigmatic illness.(8) It has been a well‐ documented struggle for HCPs and patients alike to achieve recognition of Long Covid by national agencies and governments.”
BackgroundVitamin D: A Role Also in Long COVID-19?
Barrea, L., Verde, L., Grant, W. B., Frías-Toral, E., Sarno, G., Vetrani, C., Ceriani, F., Garcia-Velasquez, E., Briceño, J. I. C., Savastano, S., et al. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14081625 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“The risk factors for long COVID-19 differ somewhat from those for COVID-19 [73].”
BackgroundPost COVID-19 Condition in South Africa: 3-Month Follow-Up after Hospitalisation with SARS-CoV-2
Dryden, M. T. G., Mudara, C., Vika, C., Blumberg, L. H., Mayet, N. T., Cohen, C., Tempia, S., Parker, A., Nel, J. S., Perumal, R., et al. (2022) · The Lancet Global Health · doi:10.1016/s2214-109x(22)00286-8 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
COVID-19 long-term sequelae: Omicron versus Alpha and Delta variants
Hernández‐Aceituno, A., García-Hernández, A., & Larumbe‐Zabala, E. (2023) · Infectious Diseases Now · doi:10.1016/j.idnow.2023.104688 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“According to Crook et al. [6], a specific variant may cause more harmful long-term effects than others, requiring faster and more intense treatment.”
Tene, L., Bergroth, T., Eisenberg, A. L., David, S. S. B., & Chodick, G. (2022) · International Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2022.12.002 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Safety and efficacy of low dose naltrexone in a long covid cohort; an interventional pre-post study
O’Kelly, B., Vidal, L., McHugh, T., Woo, J., Avramovic, G., & Lambert, J. S. (2022) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100485 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“…micro-thrombosis, neuroinflammation through microglial activation and brainstem dysfunction due to presence of angiotensin converting enzyme-2 and neuropilin-1 receptors have been proposed as mechanisms to explain neurological, psychological and autonomic sequelae (Crook et al., 2021; Yong, 2021).”
The knowns and unknowns of long COVID-19: from mechanisms to therapeutical approaches
Gheorghita, R. E., Șoldănescu, I., Lobiuc, A., Căliman-Sturdza, O. A., Filip, R., Constantinescu‐Bercu, A., Dimian, M., Mangul, S., & Covașă, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2024.1344086 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“For example, Mayo Clinic suggests that smoking, pollutants and extreme temperature may contribute to L-C19 pulmonary symptoms ’ persistence (39).”
What is the quality of life in patients with long COVID compared to a healthy control group?
Líška, D., Liptáková, E., Babičová, A., Baťalík, L., Baňárová, P. S., & Dobrodenková, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.975992 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Patients with long COVID can experience multiple pain conditions (1, 4, 14, 57).”
BackgroundImpact of Long COVID on health and quality of life
O’Mahony, L., Buwalda, T., Blair, M., Forde, B. M., Lunjani, N., Ambikan, A. T., Neogi, U., Barrett, P., Geary, E., O'Connor, N., et al. (2022) · HRB Open Research · doi:10.12688/hrbopenres.13516.1 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
- Authors
- Crook, H., Raza, S., Nowell, J., Young, M., & Edison, P.
- Affiliations
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Edison, Paul
- ORCID
- Edison, Paul
- Venue
- BMJ
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2021-07-26
- Volume
- 374
- Pages
- n1648
- ISSN
- 1756-1833 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3186314395
- Cited by
- 1,655
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 85 · 2025: 205 · 2024: 329 · 2023: 508 · 2022: 466 · 2021: 60 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 43.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2021-08-03)
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- BMJ (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Long-Term Effects of COVID-19
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Keywords
- long COVID, SARS-CoV-2, persistent symptoms, fatigue, dyspnea, cardiac anomalies, cognitive impairment, sleep disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, myalgia, risk factors, treatment options
- MeSH terms
- Global Burden of Disease, COVID-19, Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome, Clinical Trials as Topic, Combined Modality Therapy, Humans, Risk Factors, Severity of Illness Index, Incidence, Practice Guidelines as Topic, Drug Repositioning
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