Rethinking “Empowering Technology” in Higher Education Accessibility: A Case Study of Disabled Students’ Experiences at a German University

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Reducing barriers to higher education is critical for providing disabled students equal access to education and an enriching campus experience, which are determinants of academic success and positive educational outcomes and predictors of career success beyond university.

“Reducing barriers to higher education is critical for providing disabled 1 students equal access to education and an enriching campus experience, aspects that are also determinants of academic success and positive educational outcomes [52, 75], and predictors of career success beyond university [30, 52].”

• cites [52] [52] Allison R. Lombardi and Christopher Murray. 2011. Measuring university faculty attitudes toward disability: Willingness to accommodate and adopt universal design principles. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 34, 1 (2011), 43-56. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [75] [75] Antje Römhild and Alfons Hollederer. 2024. Effects of disability-related services, accommodations, and integration on academic success of students with disabilities in higher education. A scoping review. European Journal of Special Needs Education 39, 1 (2024), 143-166. - sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [30] [30] Catherine Fichten, Dorit Olenik-Shemesh, Jennison Asuncion, Mary Jorgensen, and Chetz Colwell. 2020. Higher education, information and communication technologies and students with disabilities: An overview of the current situation. In Improving Accessible Digital Practices in Higher Education: Challenges and New Practices for Inclusion , Springer Nature, Jane Seale, 21-44. - sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Technology has the promise to empower disabled students in higher education and to enhance their ability to participate in academic tasks, improve accessibility, and increase self-efficacy.

“Considering the promise of technology to empower disabled students in higher education and to enhance their ability to participate in academic tasks, improve accessibility, and increase selfefficacy [48, 68]”

• cites [48] [48] Manya Kheria and S. N. Mishra. 2020. Role of assistive technology in empowering differently abled people. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science 25 (2020), 1-6. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [68] [68] Konstantinos Papadopoulos, Eleni Koustriava, Lisander Isaraj, Elena Chronopoulou, Flavio Manganello, and Rafael Molina-Carmona. 2024. Assistive technology for higher education students with disabilities: A qualitative research. Digital 4, 2 (2024), 501-511. - sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The subjectivity of qualitative researchers can enhance qualitative research, but it also demands a commitment to continuous critical reflexivity about one's positionality.

“The subjectivity of qualitative researchers can enhance qualitative research, but it also demands a commitment to continuous critical reflexivity about one's positionality [33].”

• cites [33] [33] Hannah Gurr, Louise Oliver, Orlanda Harvey, Madhusudan Subedi, and Edwin van Teijlingen. 2024. The importance of positionality for qualitative researchers. Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology 18, 01 (2024), 48-54. - sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

According to Interdependence Theory, technology should not only aim to empower the individual but also address socio-technical and cultural barriers.

“According to the Interdependence Theory, technology should not only aim to empower the individual but also address socio-technical and cultural barriers [11], which is also in line with feminist critics around empowerment talk [4, 74].”

• cites [11] [11] Cynthia L. Bennett, Erin Brady, and Stacy M. Branham. 2018. Interdependence as a frame for assistive technology research and design. In Proceedings of the 20th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility . ACM, 161-173. - sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Empowering technologies in higher education encourage the campus community to share accessible definitions and practices and involve allies in supporting disabled students.

“Empowering technologies in higher education encourages the campus community to share accessible definitions and practices [99] and involve allies (e.g., family, friends) in supporting disabled students [14].”

• cites [99] [99] Zeynep Yıldız and Özge Subaşı. 2023. An institutional perspective: How gatekeepers on a higher education interact for the organization of access. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) 32, 3 (2023), 713-744. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [14] [14] Valeria Borsotti, Andrew Begel, and Pernille Bjørn. 2024. Neurodiversity and the accessible university: Exploring organizational barriers, access labor and opportunities for change. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 8, CSCW1 (2024), 1-27. - sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Empowering technology at the community level would enhance visibility and engagement, foster solidarity, collective access, resource sharing, and self-determined interdependence among individuals.

“Therefore, empowering technology at the community level would enhance visibility and engagement, foster solidarity, collective access, resource sharing, and self-determined interdependence among individuals, in line with the concept of networked empowerment [3] and Disability Justice [12, 39, 62].”

• cites [3] [3] Tawfiq Ammari and Sarita Schoenebeck. 2015. Networked empowerment on Facebook groups for parents of children with special needs. In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 2805-2814. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [12] [12] Patricia Berne, Aurora Levins Morales, David Langstaff, and Sins Invalid. 2018. Ten principles of disability justice. Women's Studies Quarterly 46, 1 (2018), 227-230. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [39] [39] Sins Invalid. 2017. Skin, tooth, and bone-the basis of movement is our people: A disability justice primer. - sourcePartly supported

  The review (pp. 149–150) discusses Disability Justice, accessible organising, and community members’ needs, supporting the sentence’s broad connection to Disability Justice. Our copy does not establish that solidarity, collective access, resource sharing, and self-determined interdependence are the particular outcomes described. The proposed effect of community-level technology is the citing authors’ own prediction, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [62] [62] [Mia Mingus. 2010. Reflections from Detroit: Reflections on an Opening: Disability Justice and Creating Collective Access in Detroit. Retrieved from https://incite-national.org/2010/08/23/reflections-from-detroit-reflections-on-anopening-disability-justice-and-creating-collective-access-in-detroit/](https://incite-national.org/2010/08/23/reflections-from-detroit-reflections-on-an-opening-disability-justice-and-creating-collective-access-in-detroit/) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Research in higher education highlights the importance of accessible institutions and the shared responsibility of stakeholders for access.

“Research in higher education highlights the importance of accessible institutions and the shared responsibility of stakeholders for access [14, 23, 99].”

• cites [14] [14] Valeria Borsotti, Andrew Begel, and Pernille Bjørn. 2024. Neurodiversity and the accessible university: Exploring organizational barriers, access labor and opportunities for change. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 8, CSCW1 (2024), 1-27. - sourceSupported
• cites [23] [23] Si Chen, James Waller, Matthew Seita, Christian Vogler, Raja Kushalnagar, and Qi Wang. 2024. Towards co-creating access and inclusion: A group autoethnography on a hearing individual's journey towards effective communication in mixed-hearing ability higher education settings. In Proceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 1-14. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [99] [99] Zeynep Yıldız and Özge Subaşı. 2023. An institutional perspective: How gatekeepers on a higher education interact for the organization of access. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) 32, 3 (2023), 713-744. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Recent technologies increasingly prioritize individualized accessibility solutions, such as AI, while overlooking broader systemic opportunities for institutional transformation.

“This trend is evident in the way recent technologies increasingly prioritize individualized accessibility solutions (e.g., AI [6, 27]), while overlooking the broader, systemic opportunities for institutional transformation.”

• cites [6] [6] Alex Atcheson, Omar Khan, Brian Siemann, Anika Jain, and Karrie Karahalios. 2025. 'I'd never actually realized how big an impact it had until now': Perspectives of university students with disabilities on generative artificial intelligence. In Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 1-22. - sourceSupported
• cites [27] [27] Cristina Dumitru, Ghaida Muttashar Abdulsahib, Osamah Ibrahim Khalaf, and Akram Bennour. 2024. Integrating artificial intelligence in supporting students with disabilities in higher education: An integrative review. Technology and Disability 38, 1 (2024), 3-24. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Existing research highlights the importance of organizational readiness to support assistive technology.

“Existing research highlights the importance of organizational readiness to support AT [14].”

• cites [14] [14] Valeria Borsotti, Andrew Begel, and Pernille Bjørn. 2024. Neurodiversity and the accessible university: Exploring organizational barriers, access labor and opportunities for change. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 8, CSCW1 (2024), 1-27. - sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Existing research suggests a potential of generative AI tools for developing self-advocacy skills, such as requesting accommodations, in higher education for disabled students, which could be helpful in disclosure processes.

“Here, existing research suggests a potential of generative AI tools for developing selfadvocacy skills (e.g., requesting accommodations) in higher education for disabled students, [6], which could be helpful in disclosure processes as well.”

• cites [6] [6] Alex Atcheson, Omar Khan, Brian Siemann, Anika Jain, and Karrie Karahalios. 2025. 'I'd never actually realized how big an impact it had until now': Perspectives of university students with disabilities on generative artificial intelligence. In Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 1-22. - sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among disabled students in the 2024 survey, long-term/chronic illnesses were reported by 15%.

“followed by long-term/chronic illnesses (15%), blindness/vision differences (10%), learning disabilities (9%), motor impairments (5%), and others.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Participants described a range of AT they used spanning four functional areas: digital access and communication, mobility assistance, sensory assistance, and ergonomic and environmental support.

“Participants described a range of AT they used (i.e., any technology deemed necessary or helpful in the context of their campus experience) spanning four functional areas: digital access and communication, mobility assistance, sensory assistance, and ergonomic and environmental support.”

May combine two claims.

(Assistive) technology use led to different disclosure practices as well as diverse experiences around accessibility for disabled students.

“(assistive) technology use, which led to different disclosure practices as well as diverse experiences around accessibility for disabled students.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Software ranged from text-to-speech tools and screen readers to navigation apps and task management software.

“Software (see Table 3) ranged from text-to-speech tools and screen readers to navigation apps and task management software.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among disabled students in the 2024 survey, neurodivergence was the second most prevalent type of disability reported (32%).

“with mental illnesses 3 (51% of disabled students) and neurodivergence (32% of disabled students) being the most prevalent types of disability reported”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among disabled students in the 2024 survey, blindness/vision differences were reported by 10%.

“followed by long-term/chronic illnesses (15%), blindness/vision differences (10%), learning disabilities (9%), motor impairments (5%), and others.”

May combine two claims.

Students' experiences centered on themes of disability awareness, stigma, and challenges in requesting accommodations.

“In particular, students' experiences centered on themes of disability awareness, stigma, and challenges in requesting accommodations”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among disabled students in the 2024 survey, mental illnesses were the most prevalent type of disability reported (51%).

“with mental illnesses 3 (51% of disabled students) and neurodivergence (32% of disabled students) being the most prevalent types of disability reported”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among disabled students in the 2024 survey, motor impairments were reported by 5%.

“followed by long-term/chronic illnesses (15%), blindness/vision differences (10%), learning disabilities (9%), motor impairments (5%), and others.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mobility, sensory, and ergonomic aids were reported more selectively, reflecting participants' specific accessibility needs and preferences.

“Mobility, sensory, and ergonomic aids were reported more selectively, reflecting participants' specific accessibility needs and preferences.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Hardware included mainstream devices such as laptops and smartphones, as well as mobility aids like crutches or white canes.

“Hardware (see Table 2) included mainstream devices such as laptops and smartphones, as well as mobility aids like crutches or white canes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The 2024 survey numbers are largely in line with the results of a representative survey of all German university students of 2021, best3 [87].

“These numbers are largely in line with the results of a representative survey of all German university students of 2021, best3 [87]”

• cites [87] [87] Julia Steinkühler, Mareike Beuße, Martina Kroher, Frederike Gerdes, Ulrike Schwabe, Jonas Koopmann, Karsten Becker, Daniel Völk, Theresa Schommer, Marie-Christin Erhardt, et al. 2023. Die Studierendenbefragung in Deutschland: best3. In Studieren Mit Einer Gesundheitlichen Beeinträchtigung . DZHW, Hannover. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among disabled students in the 2024 survey, learning disabilities were reported by 9%.

“followed by long-term/chronic illnesses (15%), blindness/vision differences (10%), learning disabilities (9%), motor impairments (5%), and others.”

May combine two claims.

Balancing needs and efforts was not only related to accessibility needs but also involved various interests and values, sometimes leading to a conflict of values.

“our data showed that balancing the needs and efforts was not only related to the accessibility needs of the participants but also involved their various interests and values, which sometimes led to a conflict of values”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some students referred to a range of different tools, such as mainstream navigation apps and the interactive campus map provided by the university.

“some of the students referred to a range of different tools, such as mainstream navigation apps (see Table 3) as well as the interactive campus map provided by the university”

May combine two claims.

There is a lack of knowledge about the existence of accommodations for disabled students, the types of accommodations available, their suitability for individual needs, and the process for accessing them.

“Another participant highlighted the lack of knowledge about the very existence of accommodations for disabled students, the types of accommodations available, and their suitability for individual needs, as well as the process for accessing them”

May combine two claims.

Participants referred to luck as something they needed to navigate on campus, along with the need to rely on other people.

“participants again referred to luck as something they needed to navigate on campus, along with the need to rely on other people”

May combine two claims.

Participants generally avoided using multiple tools, but sometimes needed to manage working with more than one.

“Therefore, participants generally avoided using multiple tools, but sometimes they needed to manage working with more than one”

May combine two claims.

The 'fighting' process affected students' academic success and emotional well-being.

“this 'fighting' process affected their academic success and emotional well-being”

May combine two claims.

This balancing shaped which technologies participants preferred to use and how.

“Here, this also shaped which technologies they preferred to use and how”

May combine two claims.

Learning about the existence of the representative for disabled students was not easy for participants, and how they became aware of this person was different for each participant and often the result of individual struggles.

“learning about the existence of the representative for disabled students was not easy for participants, and how they became aware of this person was different for each participant (e.g., online search, the suggestion of the therapist, the suggestion of the chairman of the examination board) and often the result of individual struggles”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Disabled students at the university often discovered disability communities/groups by chance rather than through systematic communication.

“I only found out about the self-help group for students with disabilities by chance 6 months ago. So that's not widely communicated either”

May combine two claims.

Students' disclosure preferences influence whether they choose to use or avoid AT, as these decisions are closely tied to the stigma associated with disability.

“Our fi ndings show that students' disclosure preferences influence whether they choose to use or avoid AT, as these decisions are closely tied to the stigma associated with disability.”

May combine two claims.

When participants were finally able to apply, the process was lengthy, requiring students to follow up regularly and sometimes submit additional documents.

“When they were fi nally able to apply, the process was lengthy, requiring students to follow up regularly and sometimes submit additional documents to ensure they received the appropriate support for their accessibility needs.”

May combine two claims.

Learning and surviving often involved a series of trial and error attempts, and gaining access was commonly related to being 'lucky' rather than being able to rely on systemic support mechanisms and tools.

“It often involved a series of trial and error attempts , and again, gaining access was commonly related to being 'lucky' rather than being able to rely on systemic support mechanisms and tools.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Participants highlighted how the university could support students in experimenting with new and/or costly technologies for accessibility by allowing students to borrow specific technologies.

“participants highlighted how the university could support students in experimenting with new and/or costly technologies for accessibility by allowing students to borrow specific technologies”

May combine two claims.

Especially in crowded lecture halls, students felt that they needed to consider whether the technologies they used disturbed other people, which affected how they chose to leverage them.

“Also, especially in crowded lecture halls, students felt that they needed to consider whether the technologies they used disturbed other people, which affected how they chose to leverage them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This led participants to question who should bear the responsibility for ensuring accessibility.

“This led them to question who should bear the responsibility for ensuring accessibility.”

May combine two claims.

Students felt that technology that did not immediately appear as AT (e.g., mainstream hardware and software technologies) did not disclose disability, but instead risked that students would be perceived as less invested in their studies.

“Thus, students felt that technology that did not immediately appear as AT (e.g., mainstream hardware and software technologies outlined in Tables 2 and 3) did not disclose disability, but instead risked that students would be perceived as less invested in their studies.”

May combine two claims.

Participants' opinions on disclosure varied; some preferred it as it provided them with greater autonomy over how much they chose to disclose.

“Participants' opinions on this varied; some preferred it as it provided them with greater autonomy over how much they chose to disclose.”

May combine two claims.

Students needed to inform the teaching staff whether they have a disability or what kind of accommodations they may need during lectures or exams.

“Students needed to inform the teaching staff whether they have a disability or what kind of accommodations they may need during the lectures or the exams”

May combine two claims.

Different individuals and communities are involved in disabled students' experiences, and technologies shape that process.

“Our results highlight how different individuals and communities are involved in disabled students' experiences, and how technologies shape that process.”

May combine two claims.

While some students managed to navigate the system and persevere, others chose not to engage in the struggle.

“while some students managed to navigate the system and persevere, others chose not to engage in the struggle”

May combine two claims.

Participants shared both positive and negative aspects of online courses and how they try to balance these.

“Participants both shared the positive and the negative aspects of the online courses and how they try to balance these, too.”

May combine two claims.

The absence of knowledge and transparency about how the system operates, along with its lack of flexibility, stood out as key issues.

“Here, the absence of knowledge and transparency about how the system operates, along with its lack of fl exibility, stood out as key issues.”

May combine two claims.

In the higher education context, students constantly assess the effort needed to obtain accommodations and experiment with both personal and institutional technologies to enhance access.

“In the higher education context, students constantly assess the effort needed to obtain accommodations and experiment with both personal (e.g., iPads) and institutional technologies (e.g., online lectures) to enhance access.”

May combine two claims.

Personal initiatives of people supported disabled students to access accommodations, reducing their individual efforts and improving their studentship experience.

“Our data showed various instances where personal initiatives of people supported disabled students to access accommodations, reducing their individual efforts and improving their studentship experience.”

May combine two claims.

Empowering disabled students through technology is only achievable by simultaneously empowering the broader social ecosystem, empowering the institution itself, and fostering empowerment within communities both inside and beyond the university.

“Our fi ndings show that empowering disabled students through technology is only achievable by simultaneously empowering the broader social ecosystem (e.g., peers, teaching, and administrative staff), empowering the institution itself, and fostering empowerment within communities both inside and beyond the university (e.g., student councils, grassroots self-help groups, and society at large).”

May combine two claims.

While technologies, both mainstream and assistive, can reduce disabled students' effort, mismatches between individual needs and organizational technologies often limit empowerment and lead to disempowerment.

“Our fi ndings show that while technologies (both mainstream and assistive) can reduce disabled students' effort, mismatches between individual needs and organizational technologies (e.g., inaccessible campus maps or incompatible hearing devices) often limit empowerment and lead to disempowerment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Students often share notes and bureaucratic knowledge with classmates.

“Students often share notes and bureaucratic knowledge with classmates.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Students often bridge gaps themselves, for example by integrating calendars or using multiple navigation apps.

“Personal and institutional systems should work seamlessly together, as students often bridge gaps themselves, for example by integrating calendars or using multiple navigation apps.”

May combine two claims.

Our findings highlight the importance of connections between students, staff, and allies, as well as the necessity of an empowered organization.

“While much focus is on individual empowerment, our fi ndings highlight the importance of connections between students, staff, and allies, as well as the necessity of an empowered organization.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Disclosure of disability is often complex and stressful.

“Disclosure of disability is often complex and stressful.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Empowering technology in higher education requires ongoing work at multiple levels of design and maintenance.

“Practically, our fi ndings illustrate that empowering technology in higher education requires ongoing work at multiple levels of design and maintenance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Participants often rely on peers and informal groups to navigate systems.

“Participants often rely on peers and informal groups to navigate systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Approximately 11% of students in higher education in Germany report having a disability or chronic health condition that affects their studies.

“approximately 11% of students in higher education in Germany report having a disability or chronic health condition that affects their studies [66]”

• cites [66] [66] [Federal Statistical Office of Germany. 2020. Press Release: Disability Statistics 2020. Retrieved March 27, 2025 from https://www.destatis.de/EN/Press/2020/05/PE20\_N026\_23.html](https://www.destatis.de/EN/Press/2020/05/PE20_N026_23.html) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

There is still a limited understanding of whether technology truly fulfills its promise of empowering disabled students and how it shapes disabled students' experiences in higher education.

“there is still a limited understanding of whether technology truly fulfills this promise and how it shapes disabled students' experiences in higher education.”

May combine two claims.

Only about 4% of students in Germany officially disclose their disabilities for access accommodations, reflecting possible concerns about stigma or difficulties in navigating the system.

“but only about 4% officially disclose their disabilities for access accommodations, reflecting possible concerns about stigma or difficulties in navigating the system [38, 89].”

• cites [38] [38] [Studying in Germany. 2025. Studying in Germany as a Disabled Student. Retrieved March 27, 2025 from https: //www.studying-in-germany.org/studying-in-germany-as-a-disabled-student/](https://www.studying-in-germany.org/studying-in-germany-as-a-disabled-student/) -Not checked yet

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• cites [89] [89] [German Student Services Organization (Deutsches Studierendenwerk). 2025. Studying with Disabilities. Retrieved March 27, 2025 from https://www.studierendenwerke.de/en/topics/studying-with-disabilities](https://www.studierendenwerke.de/en/topics/studying-with-disabilities) -Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Most studies on higher education accessibility focus narrowly on academic accessibility, failing to consider the holistic nature of studentship.

“Additionally, most studies focus narrowly on academic accessibility, failing to consider the holistic nature of studentship.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the best3 2021 representative survey, 15.9% (N = 26,571) of all participating students (N = 179,908) indicated having a disability that impeded their studying.

“where 15.9% (N = 26,571) of all participating students (N = 179,908) indicated having a disability that impeded their studying.”

• cites [87] [87] Julia Steinkühler, Mareike Beuße, Martina Kroher, Frederike Gerdes, Ulrike Schwabe, Jonas Koopmann, Karsten Becker, Daniel Völk, Theresa Schommer, Marie-Christin Erhardt, et al. 2023. Die Studierendenbefragung in Deutschland: best3. In Studieren Mit Einer Gesundheitlichen Beeinträchtigung . DZHW, Hannover. -Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The codes and themes were refined and developed in a collaborative effort with another researcher.

“in a collaborative effort together with another researcher, the codes were refined and themes developed”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Throughout data collection and analysis, the mixed-ability research team was careful in navigating the dynamics between themselves and the participants.

“Throughout the data collection and the analysis process, the mixed-ability research team was also careful with navigating the dynamics between themselves and the participants.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The code manual reached saturation and no new points came up in the transcripts.

“until the code manual reached saturation and no new points came up in the transcripts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A second researcher reviewed the results and confirmed the reliability of the codes.

“A second researcher reviewed the results and confirmed the reliability of the codes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

This study is the first to apply the perspective of Empowerment Theory to higher education accessibility.

“Second, we present the fi rst study that applies the perspective of ET to higher education accessibility.”

May combine two claims.

Inconsistencies in the implementation of accommodations and the burden placed on students to navigate decentralized structures at the studied university highlight systemic challenges.

“While the university provides these services, inconsistencies in the implementation of accommodations and the burden placed on students to navigate decentralized structures highlight systemic challenges.”

May combine two claims.

Barriers to success for disabled students exist within the structural, organizational, physical, and attitudinal dimensions of universities, necessitating structural change to achieve genuinely inclusive access at the university level.

“barriers to success exist within the structural, organizational, physical, and attitudinal dimensions of universities [28, 53], necessitating structural change to achieve genuinely inclusive access at the university level [28].”

• cites [28] [28] Nancy J. Evans, Ellen M. Broido, Kirsten R. Brown, and Autumn K. Wilke. 2017. Disability in Higher Education: A Social Justice Approach . John Wiley & Sons. -Not checked yet

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• cites [53] [53] Michael Lyman, Mark E. Beecher, Derek Griner, Michael Brooks, John Call, and Aaron Jackson. 2016. What keeps students with disabilities from using accommodations in postsecondary education? A qualitative review. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability 29, 2 (2016), 123-140. -Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study was approved by the university's ethics board in accordance with human subjects research requirements.

“The study was approved by the university's ethics board in accordance with human subjects research requirements.”

May combine two claims.

German higher education institutions are formally required to comply with laws such as the General Equal Treatment Act, the Federal Act on Equal Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities, and the Higher Education Acts of German federal states, but the effectiveness of these frameworks in addressing the needs of students with disabilities varies widely.

“German higher education institutions are formally required to comply with laws such as the General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) [1], the Federal Act on Equal Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities (BGG) [67], and the Higher Education Acts of German federal states [50], but the effectiveness of these frameworks in addressing the needs of students with disabilities varies widely.”

• cites [1] [1] [Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency. 2025. General Equal Treatment Act (AGG). Retrieved March 27, 2025 from https://www.antidiskriminierungsstelle.de/EN/about-discrimination/order-and-law/general-equal-treatmentact/general-equal-treatment-act-node.html](https://www.antidiskriminierungsstelle.de/EN/about-discrimination/order-and-law/general-equal-treatment-act/general-equal-treatment-act-node.html) -Not checked yet

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• cites [67] [67] [Federal Ministry of Justice. 2023. Act on Equal Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities (BGG). Retrieved March 27, 2025 from https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bgg/BJNR146800002.html](https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bgg/BJNR146800002.html) -Not checked yet

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• cites [50] [50] [Kultusministerkonferenz. 2025. Education in Germany. Retrieved March 27, 2025 from https://www.kmk.org/ fileadmin/Dateien/pdf/Eurydice/Bildungswesen-engl-pdfs/dossier\_en\_ebook.pdf](https://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/Dateien/pdf/Eurydice/Bildungswesen-engl-pdfs/dossier_en_ebook.pdf) -Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The reliability of the codes was tested by initially coding two interviews with the initial set of codes.

“To test the reliability of the codes, initially, two interviews were selected and coded with the initial set of codes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the best3 survey, the most frequent disabilities were mental illnesses (65.2%), chronic illnesses (13.2%), learning disabilities (3.7%), and motor impairments (2.5%).

“Here, the most frequent ones were mental illnesses (65.2%), chronic illnesses (13.2%), learning disabilities (3.7%), and motor impairments (2.5%).”

• cites [87] [87] Julia Steinkühler, Mareike Beuße, Martina Kroher, Frederike Gerdes, Ulrike Schwabe, Jonas Koopmann, Karsten Becker, Daniel Völk, Theresa Schommer, Marie-Christin Erhardt, et al. 2023. Die Studierendenbefragung in Deutschland: best3. In Studieren Mit Einer Gesundheitlichen Beeinträchtigung . DZHW, Hannover. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The authors recognize and reflect on the fact that their backgrounds, personal disability experiences, and relationship with the research context may shape how they collect and analyze their data.

“In this study, we recognize and reflect on the fact that our backgrounds, personal disability experiences, and our relationship with the research context may shape how we collect and analyze our data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Neurodivergence was not included as a category in the best3 survey.

“Neurodivergence was not included as a category.”

• cites [87] [87] Julia Steinkühler, Mareike Beuße, Martina Kroher, Frederike Gerdes, Ulrike Schwabe, Jonas Koopmann, Karsten Becker, Daniel Völk, Theresa Schommer, Marie-Christin Erhardt, et al. 2023. Die Studierendenbefragung in Deutschland: best3. In Studieren Mit Einer Gesundheitlichen Beeinträchtigung . DZHW, Hannover. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Overall, ensuring accessibility meant constant arrangement of resources and efforts for disabled students, which is not always supported well by individual and institutional-level technologies.

“Overall, ensuring accessibility meant constant arrangement of resources and efforts for disabled students , which is not always supported well by the individual and institutional-level technologies.”

May combine two claims.

Accessible physical infrastructure is important alongside technology-enabled virtual options.

“underscoring the importance of accessible physical infrastructure alongside technology-enabled virtual options”

May combine two claims.

Shortcomings of technologies shape the experience, which also needs to be supported with socio-technical infrastructure and social context.

“This demonstrates how the shortcomings of technologies shape the experience, which also needs to be supported with the socio-technical infrastructure (e.g., building acoustics) and the social context (e.g., crowded lectures).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Empowering technology can facilitate and sustain interdependent communication between the organizational, community, and individual levels.

“Beyond its function at various levels (see above subsection), empowering technology can facilitate and sustain interdependent communication between these levels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

At the organizational level, an empowering organization creates processes that enable its members to gain control, develop their skills, and contribute to decision-making and organizational goals.

“At the organizational level , an empowering organization is one that creates processes enabling its members to gain control, develop their skills, and effectively contribute to decision-making and organizational goals [100].”

• cites [100] [100] Marc A. Zimmerman. 2000. Empowerment theory: Psychological, organizational and community levels of analysis. In Handbook of Community Psychology . Julian Rappaport and Edward Seidman (Eds.), Springer, 43-63. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Organizational-level adaptation of AI may be very helpful for ensuring an accessible and inclusive higher education institution.

“Existing work mostly focuses on the use of AI for accessibility for individual use (e.g., disabled students, [6, 27]); organizational-level adaptation may also be very helpful for ensuring an accessible and inclusive higher education institution.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

At the community level, empowerment emphasizes the collective capacity of a group of people to work together to create change and respond effectively to threats to quality of life, often addressing social, economic, or political inequalities.

“At the community level , empowerment emphasizes the collective capacity of a group of people to work together to create change and respond effectively to threats to the quality of life, often addressing social, economic, or political inequalities [100].”

• cites [100] [100] Marc A. Zimmerman. 2000. Empowerment theory: Psychological, organizational and community levels of analysis. In Handbook of Community Psychology . Julian Rappaport and Edward Seidman (Eds.), Springer, 43-63. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

AT, though designed to enhance accessibility, can unintentionally create social barriers and stigma if they visibly mark users as 'other', leading students to avoid otherwise beneficial devices.

“previous HCI research has shown that AT, though designed to enhance accessibility, can unintentionally create social barriers and stigma if they visibly mark users as 'other' [84], leading students to avoid otherwise beneficial devices [45, 84].”

• cites [84] [84] Kristen Shinohara and Jacob O. Wobbrock. 2011. In the shadow of misperception: Assistive technology use and social interactions. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 705-714. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [45] [45] Shaun K. Kane, Chandrika Jayant, Jacob O. Wobbrock, and Richard E. Ladner. 2009. Freedom to roam: A study of mobile device adoption and accessibility for people with visual and motor disabilities. In Proceedings of the 11th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility , 115-122. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An empowering individual fosters an environment where others can gain confidence, access resources, and develop autonomy.

“According to Zimmerman [100], an empowering individual fosters an environment where others can gain confidence, access resources, and develop autonomy.”

• cites [100] [100] Marc A. Zimmerman. 2000. Empowerment theory: Psychological, organizational and community levels of analysis. In Handbook of Community Psychology . Julian Rappaport and Edward Seidman (Eds.), Springer, 43-63. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Zimmerman's ET has previously been leveraged in accessibility research and offers a lens to explore the role of technology at the individual, community, and organizational levels.

“we draw upon Zimmerman's ET [100], which has previously been leveraged in accessibility research [95], and which offers us a lens to explore the role of technology at the individual, community, and organizational levels.”

• cites [100] [100] Marc A. Zimmerman. 2000. Empowerment theory: Psychological, organizational and community levels of analysis. In Handbook of Community Psychology . Julian Rappaport and Edward Seidman (Eds.), Springer, 43-63. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [95] [95] Bert Vandenberghe, Kathrin Gerling, Luc Geurts, and Vero Vanden Abeele. 2022. Maker technology and the promise of empowerment in a Flemish school for disabled children. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 1-18. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Accessibility should be built into mainstream technologies.

“existing research suggests that accessibility should be built into mainstream technologies [84].”

• cites [84] [84] Kristen Shinohara and Jacob O. Wobbrock. 2011. In the shadow of misperception: Assistive technology use and social interactions. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 705-714. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

An empowered individual has gained the knowledge, skills, confidence, and control to actively shape their own experiences and advocate for their needs.

“An empowered individual is someone who has gained the knowledge, skills, confidence, and control to actively shape their own experiences and advocate for their needs [100].”

• cites [100] [100] Marc A. Zimmerman. 2000. Empowerment theory: Psychological, organizational and community levels of analysis. In Handbook of Community Psychology . Julian Rappaport and Edward Seidman (Eds.), Springer, 43-63. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Offering a network of interconnected resources could help distribute the effort disabled students put into individualized solutions and compensate for gaps in institutional knowledge.

“Here, effective community participation is crucial for in-situ accommodations [41], and offering a network of interconnected resources could help distribute the effort disabled students put into individualized solutions and compensate for gaps in institutional knowledge [83].”

• cites [83] [83] Kristen Shinohara, Mick McQuaid, and Nayeri Jacobo. 2021. The burden of survival: How doctoral students in computing bridge the chasm of inaccessibility. In Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 1-13. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Disabled students had to know what accommodations they needed before each semester, but they struggled when they encountered a new inaccessibility that needed accommodation, and the stakes were too high in case of inaccessibility.

“disabled students had to know what accommodations they needed before each semester, but they struggled when they encountered a new inaccessibility that needed accommodation, and the stakes were too high in case of inaccessibility [82].”

• cites [82] [82] Kristen Shinohara, Michael McQuaid, and Nayeri Jacobo. 2020. Access differential and inequitable access: Inaccessibility for doctoral students in computing. In Proceedings of the 22nd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility , 1-12. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Previous studies on campus accessibility in HCI show that even without formal accessibility roles, many administrative and faculty members make decisions impacting disabled students' experiences.

“Previous studies on campus accessibility in HCI show that even without formal accessibility roles, many administrative and faculty members make decisions impacting disabled students' experiences [99].”

• cites [99] [99] Zeynep Yıldız and Özge Subaşı. 2023. An institutional perspective: How gatekeepers on a higher education interact for the organization of access. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) 32, 3 (2023), 713-744. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Empowering technology at the individual level connects people to form supportive communities based on solidarity.

“Empowering technology at the individual level connects people to form supportive communities based on solidarity, as previously illustrated in the context of accessibility of maker spaces [91].”

• cites [91] [91] Oliver Suchanek, Janis Lena Meissner, Robin Angelini, and Katta Spiel. 2025. From participation to solidarity: A case study on access of maker spaces from deaf and hearing perspectives. In Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 1-15. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The integration of AT in higher education must be approached as a socio-technical problem and a sole focus on new and emerging technology will not suffice to provide inclusive, rewarding, and equitable studentship experiences.

“the integration of AT in higher education must be approached as a socio-technical problem and that a sole focus on new and emerging technology will not suffice to provide inclusive, rewarding, and equitable studentship experiences.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Previous research highlights social factors like visual appeal and social acceptance of AT.

“previous research highlighting social factors like visual appeal and social acceptance of AT [69].”

• cites [69] [69] Phil Parette and Marcia Scherer. 2004. Assistive technology use and stigma. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities 39, 3 (2004), 217-226. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Previous research argues that interactions with technology occur at the individual level, mediated by the environment and shaped by organizational decisions, and that it is crucial to encourage institutional-level adoption of technologies and practices for accessibility.

“Previous research also argues that interactions with technology occur at the individual level, mediated by the environment and shaped by organizational decisions [95] and it is crucial to encourage institutional-level adoption of technologies and practices for accessibility [10].”

• cites [95] [95] Bert Vandenberghe, Kathrin Gerling, Luc Geurts, and Vero Vanden Abeele. 2022. Maker technology and the promise of empowerment in a Flemish school for disabled children. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 1-18. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [10] [10] [Andrew Begel. 2021. Accessible CS Education in Colleges and Universities . Technical Report. Microsoft Research. Retrieved from https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Accessible-CS-Ed-in-Collegesand-Universities\_Andrew-Begel.pdf](https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Accessible-CS-Ed-in-Colleges-and-Universities_Andrew-Begel.pdf) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Building accessibility into mainstream technologies may not be a final solution to stigma, and customization of (assistive or mainstream) technologies for different social norms of various contexts seems crucial, especially in public spaces such as higher education campuses.

“this may not be a fi nal solution to stigma, and customization of (assistive or mainstream) technologies for different social norms of various contexts seems crucial, especially in public spaces [71] such as higher education campuses.”

• cites [71] [71] Halley P. Profita. 2016. Designing wearable computing technology for acceptability and accessibility. ACM SIGACCESS Accessibility and Computing 114 (2016), 44-48. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Empowering technology enables disabled students to customize and re-purpose personal technology to meet their specific needs, facilitating easier disclosure of disabilities where desired, and accommodation requests in diverse contexts.

“Additionally, such technology enables disabled students to customize and re-purpose personal technology to meet their specific needs [41], facilitating easier disclosure of disabilities where desired, and accommodation requests in diverse contexts.”

• cites [41] [41] Dhruv Jain, Venkatesh Potluri, and Ather Sharif. 2020. Navigating graduate school with a disability. In Proceedings of the 22nd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility , 1-11. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Empowering technology does not just support disabled students but transforms the entire ecosystem of people, organizations, and communities to be collectively inclusive, reducing the invisible labor of advocacy, requesting accommodations, and ensuring an equitable studentship experience for everyone.

“It does not just support disabled students, but transforms the entire ecosystem (people, organizations, and communities) to be collectively inclusive, reducing the invisible labor of advocacy, requesting accommodations, and ensuring an equitable studentship experience for everyone.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Existing research underscores institutional efforts for funding assistive technology for disabled students.

“Existing research underscores institutional efforts for funding AT for disabled students [82].”

• cites [82] [82] Kristen Shinohara, Michael McQuaid, and Nayeri Jacobo. 2020. Access differential and inequitable access: Inaccessibility for doctoral students in computing. In Proceedings of the 22nd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility , 1-12. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The relatively small sample size limits the breadth of perspectives captured, which may have different effects on the generalizability of the results.

“Finally, the relatively small sample size further limits the breadth of perspectives captured, which may have different effects on the generalizability of our results.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Context-sensitive and adaptable systems can reduce stigma and support diverse needs.

“Contextsensitive and adaptable systems can reduce stigma (as also reported by [84]) and support diverse needs.”

• cites [84] [84] Kristen Shinohara and Jacob O. Wobbrock. 2011. In the shadow of misperception: Assistive technology use and social interactions. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 705-714. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study took place at a German university that has specific organizational and legislative rules that might not apply to other contexts.

“First, the study took place at a German university that has specific organizational and legislative rules that might not apply to other contexts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Existing research highlights the importance of all student groups offering accommodations to fully include disabled students as leaders and participants.

“Existing research highlights the importance of all student groups offering accommodations to fully include disabled students as leaders and participants [7].”

• cites [7] [7] Catie Baker, Andrew Begel, Matthew Butler, Anat Caspi, R. Ghazal, N. Kingston, Colleen Lewis, C. Lewis, K. Mack, R. Mbari-Kirika, et al. 2023. Accessible computing education in colleges and universities [online]. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.