What Do Platforms Do? Understanding the Gig Economy
Abstract
The rapid growth of the platform economy has provoked scholarly discussion of its consequences for the nature of work and employment. We identify four major themes in the literature on platform work and the underlying metaphors associated with each. Platforms are seen as entrepreneurial incubators, digital cages, accelerants of precarity, and chameleons adapting to their environments. Each of these devices has limitations, which leads us to introduce an alternative image of platforms: as permissive potentates that externalize responsibility and control over economic transactions while still exercising concentrated power. As a consequence, platforms represent a distinct type of governance mechanism, different from markets, hierarchies, or networks, and therefore pose a unique set of problems for regulators, workers, and their competitors in the conventional economy. Reflecting the instability of the platform structure, struggles over regulatory regimes are dynamic and difficult to predict, but they are sure to gain in prominence as the platform economy grows.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review identifies four dominant metaphors for platform work—entrepreneurial incubator, digital cage, accelerant of precarity, and institutional chameleon—and argues each is partial. It proposes an alternative image: platforms as “permissive potentates” that externalize responsibility and control while retaining concentrated power, making them a distinct governance mechanism from markets, hierarchies, or networks.
Key findings
- The literature is organized around four images: platforms as entrepreneurial incubators, digital cages, accelerants of precarity, and chameleons adapting to institutional environments; each contains partial truth but distorts platform affordances.
- Platforms are best understood as a new governance mechanism: they delegate control over work methods, schedules, and performance evaluation while retaining authority over task allocation, data collection, pricing, and revenue collection—hence “permissive potentates.”
- Platform work is highly heterogeneous; dependency status is a key determinant, with supplemental earners better able to refuse low-paying tasks and thus earn higher wages, exercise more autonomy, and report more satisfaction than dependent workers (Schor et al. 2019).
- Regulatory and collective-action struggles are dynamic: examples include California’s Dynamex ruling and Assembly Bill 5, New York City’s minimum wage for drivers, a 2019 global ride-hail strike, and SMart, a freelancers’ cooperative with 35,000 members since 1998; Chen (2018) found 40% of Didi drivers in China used digital strategies such as bots or multiple phones to subvert the algorithm.
Methods
- Design: a review article synthesizing sociological and related literature on the platform economy and gig work; no new primary data are collected.
- Data/sample: published studies, reports, and legal/regulatory developments; the authors construct a typology of five platform work types—architects/technologists, cloud-based consultants/freelancers, offline gig workers, microtaskers, and aspirational labor/content producers.
- Analysis: conceptual critique of four prevailing metaphors, development of the “permissive potentates” alternative, and review of regulatory struggles and a research agenda.
Limitations
- The paper states that platforms are a nascent, highly dynamic, and unstable economic form whose future is difficult to foresee; it cannot predict whether the platform governance mechanism will prove stable or institutionalized.
- The paper states that research is lopsided—abundant on service providers but much less on architects, technologists, and algorithmic design—and identifies understudied areas including systemic relations between conventional and platform economies, collective action, and alternative labor-condition strategies.
- Evident from the text: as a review, it does not report a systematic search protocol or primary empirical tests; its conclusions are interpretive syntheses of existing scholarship and reported cases.
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 64 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingcitation§ The Digital Cage
40% of Didi drivers in China were using digital strategies such as bots or owning multiple phones to subvert the algorithm.
“Chen's (2018) study of Didi drivers in China found that 40% were using digital strategies such as bots or owning multiple phones to subvert the algorithm.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chen 2018
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- Findingcitation§ The Digital Cage
Empirical studies have found that workers can develop forms of resistance, acting back on the technologies they confront.
“Empirical studies have begun to find that workers can indeed develop forms of resistance, acting back on the technologies they confront.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation§ The Digital Cage
Delivery couriers also develop ways to resist algorithmic control.
“There are similar findings among delivery couriers, who also develop ways to resist algorithmic control (AttwoodCharles 2019,Schor et al. 2019, Shapiro 2018).”
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- cites Schor et al. 2019
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- cites Shapiro 2018
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- Findingcitation§ The Digital Cage
Freelancers on UpWork have found ways of defeating the platform's reputational metrics by forming online alliances with clients to game the performance evaluation system.
“For example, Rahman (2018) finds that freelancers on UpWork have found ways of defeating the platform's reputational metrics, essentially forming online alliances with clients to game the performance evaluation system.”
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- Findingcitation§ The Digital Cage
Uber drivers deploy an array of tactics to evade the platform's rules.
“Cameron's (2019) multicity study of Uber drivers showed that workers deploy an array of tactics to evade the platform's rules.”
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- Findingreasoning§ Accelerants of Precarity
Platform workers are forced to assume forms and levels of risk that were previously shouldered by employers and the state.
“Bereft of long-standing protections such as a minimum wage, safety and health regulation, retirement income, health insurance, and worker compensation, platform workers are forced to assume forms and levels of risk that were previously shouldered by employers and the state.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ Accelerants of Precarity
Platforms have thus far been able to avoid bearing the full costs and risks of employment, which they have devolved onto workers.
“Platforms have thus far been able to avoid bearing the full costs and risks of employment, which they have devolved onto workers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ Accelerants of Precarity
Platform workers bear all the costs of inadequate demand and lost earnings.
“Platform workers bear all the costs of inadequate demand and lost earnings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation§ Accelerants of Precarity
Platform workers are subject to deactivation, with its attendant consequences, when customers rate them poorly.
“And they are subject to deactivation, with its attendant consequences, when customers rate them poorly (Ravenelle 2019, Rosenblat 2018).”
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- Findingcitation§ The Digital Cage
Ride-hail drivers in Boston were able to build solidary ties among their own ranks, engaging in efforts to control the supply and price of their own labor power.
“In her study of Uber in Boston, Robinson (2017) found that ride-hail drivers were able to build solidary ties among their own ranks, engaging in efforts to control the supply (and thereby the price) of their own labor power.”
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- Findingnone given§ The Digital Cage
Broader forms of resistance have emerged, as ride-hailing drivers and food couriers engage in job actions such as multicity flash strikes and demonstrations and form associations to mount legal challenges to regulatory arrangements.
“Broader forms of resistance have also emerged, as ride-hailing drivers and food couriers engage in job actions such as multicity flash strikes and demonstrations and form associations to mount legal challenges to the regulatory arrangements under which platform companies routinely operate.”
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Drivers share information about what the algorithm is doing to respond optimally from their own point of view.
“AllenRobertson (2017) analyzed online postings of drivers and found that they share information about what the algorithm is doing to respond optimally from their own point of view.”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Abstract
Platforms represent a distinct type of governance mechanism, different from markets, hierarchies, or networks.
“As a consequence, platforms represent a distinct type of governance mechanism, different from markets, hierarchies, or networks, and therefore pose a unique set of problems for regulators, workers, and their competitors in the conventional economy.”
- Also stated in: § INTRODUCTION · plain
“We argue that platforms represent a distinctive form of economic activity, influenced by but different from markets, hierarchies, and networks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § INTRODUCTION · plain
- Interpretationreasoning§ Incubators of Entrepreneurialism
The crowd of platform participants may not resemble freely acting entrepreneurs but rather a herd that can be milked or sheared to extract revenue.
“In this case, the crowd may not resemble an assemblage of freely acting entrepreneurs but rather a herd that, like livestock, can be milked or sheared to extract revenue.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Abstract
Platforms pose a unique set of problems for regulators, workers, and their competitors in the conventional economy.
“and therefore pose a unique set of problems for regulators, workers, and their competitors in the conventional economy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Incubators of Entrepreneurialism
Powerful platforms have exercised influence over state legislatures, passing preemption laws that forbid cities from regulating app-based services.
“Political factors are also relevant, as powerful platforms have exercised influence over state legislatures, passing preemption laws that forbid cities from regulating app-based services (Borkholder et al. 2018, Collier et al. 2018).”
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- Premisecitation§ ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTION
Platform work includes content producers and influencers who perform aspirational labor, often unpaid, in the hope of gaining prominence in the attention economy.
“Afinal type of platform worker exists in the penumbra of social media and includes the content producers and influencers who perform what Duffy (2017) calls aspirational labor.”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Incubators of Entrepreneurialism
Political power has been especially prevalent in ride-hail and delivery, which are local services that lack network effects.
“Political power has been especially prevalent in ride-hail and delivery, which are local services that lack network effects.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ INTRODUCTION
The unique characteristics of platforms reside in the selection, control, and evaluation of the labor that service providers perform.
“We identify their unique characteristics, which reside in the selection, control, and evaluation of the labor that service providers perform.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTION
Workers in platform work are exposed to diverse conditions of employment.
“First, workers are exposed to diverse conditions of employment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTION
Platforms often exacerbate excess supply conditions with ongoing recruitment.
“conditions that platforms often exacerbate with ongoing recruitment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Accelerants of Precarity
Supplemental earners, because they enjoy distance from necessity, can refuse low-paying tasks and position themselves more advantageously in the labor market.
“Because supplemental earners enjoy a measure of distance from necessity, they can refuse low-paying tasks, positioning themselves more advantageously in the labor market.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Digital Cage
Digital technology can encode workplace rules into the digital tools that workers must use to complete their tasks, attacking workers' capability to evade rules.
“This capability is now being attacked by digital technology, which can encode workplace rules into the digital tools that workers must use to complete their tasks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Institutional Chameleons
Platform business models and digital structures have obdurate qualities that regulators and theorists cannot wish away.
“The business models and digital structures on which platforms rely have certain obdurate qualities that regulators and theorists cannot wish away.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Institutional Chameleons
The institutional-contingency view runs the risk of neglecting common features that platforms exhibit, especially in a globalizing world.
“By emphasizing the institutional contingencies that shape platform technology, however, this view runs the risk of neglecting the common features that platforms do exhibit, especially in a globalizing world.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Permissive Potentates
Platforms exhibit unstable features rooted in their effort to govern the labor process from a distance.
“Yet by their very nature, platforms exhibit unstable features, rooted in their effort to govern the labor process from a distance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Digital Cage
Arguing that algorithmic management of platform work expands company control over the work process or forestalls workers' capacity to contest their subordinate position overestimates or reifies the power of digital technology.
“Yet to go further and argue that algorithmic management of platform work expands company control over the work process or forestalls workers' capacity to contest their subordinate position is to overestimate or reify the power of digital technology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Accelerants of Precarity
Platforms represent a manifestation of a much broader trend that has enabled firms to externalize risks they had previously been compelled to shoulder.
“Thus, platforms represent a manifestation of a much broader trend that has enabled firms to externalize risks they had previously been compelled to shoulder.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ Permissive Potentates
Platforms adopt a business model in which firms capture profits through digital intermediation, avoiding the encumbrances of ownership of fixed capital or direct employment of labor.
“The first is the adoption of a business model in which firms capture profits through digital intermediation, thus avoiding the encumbrances that ownership of fixed capital or the direct employment of labor usually entails.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Accelerants of Precarity
To neglect workforce heterogeneity is to misspecify platforms' effects on work and employment.
“To neglect this feature of platforms is to misspecify their effects on work and employment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Permissive Potentates
Few platform earners are required to enact workplace scripts, a common feature of interactive service work.
“This is why few platform earners are required to enact workplace scripts, a common feature of interactive service work (Leidner 1993).”
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- Interpretationnone given§ Permissive Potentates
Platforms manifest at least four distinct features in this regime of permissive power.
“In our view, platforms manifest at least four distinct features in this regime of permissive power.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Permissive Potentates
Platforms establish a digital infrastructure to govern the service triangle linking employers, workers, and customers.
“They do so by establishing a digital infrastructure with which to govern the service triangle that links employers, workers, and customers (Leidner 1993).”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Accelerants of Precarity
Workforce heterogeneity may be one of the most distinctive structural attributes of platform labor.
“While most of the theorization in the literature treats platform workers as a homogeneous group, workforce heterogeneity may be one of the most distinctive structural attributes of platform labor.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Institutional Chameleons
There are intriguing similarities between studies of Uber drivers in Boston, Massachusetts, and Monterrey, Mexico.
“Moreover, one finds intriguing similarities between studies of Uber drivers in Boston, Massachusetts, and Monterrey, Mexico (Manriquez 2019, Robinson 2017).”
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- Interpretationcitation§ Accelerants of Precarity
Platforms provide business organizations with yet another way of achieving accumulation through dispossession.
“From this point of view, platforms provide business organizations with yet another way of achieving what Harvey (2005) has called accumulation through dispossession-that is, the use of legal and financial mechanisms with which to uproot the economic rights that workers had previously enjoyed.”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Permissive Potentates
Platforms govern economic transactions not by expanding control over participants but by relinquishing important dimensions of control and delegating them to the other two parties to the exchange.
“We argue that platforms govern economic transactions not by expanding their control over participants but by relinquishing important dimensions of control and delegating them to the other two parties to the exchange-hence the term permissive.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Permissive Potentates
Platforms exercise power over economic transactions by delegating control among the participants.
“platforms exercise power over economic transactions by delegating control among the participants.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Digital Cage
The effect of Turkopticon is to at least partially turn the tables on AMT's algorithm.
“The effect in this case is to at least partially turn the tables on AMT's algorithm.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Permissive Potentates
Relying on digital intermediation as a business model, platforms can grow at astonishing speed because they are not limited by the need to construct new infrastructure.
“Relying on digital intermediation as a business model, platforms can grow at astonishing speed, since they are not limited by the need to construct new infrastructure (Srnicek 2016, pp. 45-46).”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Accelerants of Precarity
Precarity is often an apt descriptor of the conditions that platform workers confront as they struggle to keep their balance under conditions of rising uncertainty.
“Therefore, precarity is often an apt descriptor of the conditions that platform workers confront as they struggle to keep their balance under conditions of rising uncertainty.”
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The cage metaphor is inadequate because research shows the limits of algorithmic labor control.
“Although this view contains important elements of truth, the inadequacy of the cage metaphor is evident in research showing the limits of algorithmic labor control.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Permissive Potentates
Platforms can take the form of permissive predators when they use their power to exploit their labor forces, as has grown especially apparent in ride-hail and delivery.
“Furthermore, they can also take the form of permissive predators when they use their power to exploit their labor forces, as has grown especially apparent in ride-hail and delivery.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Permissive Potentates
Platforms constitute a new type of governance mechanism with which employers can conduct economic transactions.
“we argue that platforms constitute a new type of governance mechanism with which employers can conduct economic transactions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Institutional Chameleons
Platform firms can exert powerful influences over their institutional environment.
“Indeed, platform firms can exert powerful influences over their institutional environment-a capacity we discuss in the next section, and a characteristic that few chameleons enjoy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Institutional Chameleons
Wood et al. found few significant differences in working conditions across Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
“in their study of crowdworking in Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, Wood et al. (2018) found few significant differences in working conditions across the regions they explored.”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Permissive Potentates
The extraction of value rests on a new structural form in which platforms remain powerful even as they cede control over aspects of the labor process.
“The extraction of value rests on a new structural form in which platforms remain powerful even as they cede control over aspects of the labor process.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Accelerants of Precarity
Fordist organizations have been flexibilizing employment relations for decades by outsourcing and subcontracting work or using contingent forms of employment with increasing regularity.
“The notion here is that Fordist organizations have been flexibilizing employment relations for decades-for example, by outsourcing and subcontracting work or using contingent forms of employment with increasing regularity (Beck 2000, Smith 2010).”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Permissive Potentates
The platform plays the role of tertius gaudens, the third who rejoices, in Simmel's classic theory of the triad.
“The effect allows the platform to play the role of tertius gaudens -'the third who rejoices'-as in Simmel's classic theory of the triad (in Wolff 1950).”
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- Premisecitation§ CONCLUSION
The vision of states successfully regulating platforms and balancing worker, citizen, and platform interests is more like the current situation in some European countries, where platforms have been forced to conform to existing laws.
“This vision is more like the current situation in some European countries, where platforms have been forced to conform to existing laws.”
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- Interpretationcitation§ Permissive Potentates
Adopting an open employment structure leads to high heterogeneity among platform workers.
“This discussion has neglected a key consequence of adopting an open employment structure, however, which is high heterogeneity among platform workers (Schor et al. 2019).”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Permissive Potentates
The open employment relation allows earners to work for competitor platforms.
“The relation is also open in the sense that earners are free to work for competitor platforms.”
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Findingreasoning§ Incubators of EntrepreneurialismPlatforms have not to date fostered crowd-based capitalism or horizontal power configurations.
“Nor have they to date.”
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Findingcitation§ The Digital CageSuch tactics have recently gained wider use.
“Such tactics have recently gained wider use (Sweeney 2019).”
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Findingnone given§ CONCLUSIONThe literature contains four controlling images of labor platforms, each with weaknesses.
“We identified four controlling images in the literature; however, each has weaknesses.”
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Interpretationreasoning§ ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTIONThere are abundant reasons for caution when generalizing about the nature and organization of platform work.
“These and other considerations provide abundant reasons for caution when generalizing about the nature and organization of platform work.”
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Premisecitation§ ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTIONPlatform work includes gig workers whose services are engaged via platforms and generally performed offline, as in ride-hail, food delivery, home repair, and care work.
“A third category is gig workers whose services are engaged via platforms and generally performed offline, as in ride-hail, food delivery, home repair, and care work.”
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Interpretationnone given§ ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTIONLabor market dynamics and demand conditions vary across platform worker groups, with architects and technologists in chronically short supply and gig, microtasker, and unpaid content producers suffering from chronic excess supply.
“Labor market dynamics and demand conditions vary across the groups, with architects and technologists being in chronically short supply and gig, microtasker, and unpaid content producers suffering from chronic excess supply, conditions that platforms often exacerbate with ongoing recruitment.”
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Interpretationreasoning§ The Digital CageThe first, entrepreneurial view exhibits elements of utopian thinking, and the second approach to platform work exhibits elements of dystopian thinking.
“If the first, entrepreneurial view exhibits elements of utopian thinking, the opposite charge can be leveled at the second approach to platform work.”
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Interpretationnone given§ AbstractPlatforms externalize responsibility and control over economic transactions while still exercising concentrated power.
“as permissive potentates that externalize responsibility and control over economic transactions while still exercising concentrated power.”
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Premisecitation§ Incubators of EntrepreneurialismIn the presence of network effects, platforms can scale, dominate markets, and gain enough monopoly power to dictate conditions of exchange or develop monopsonistic positions in their labor markets.
“In the presence of network effects, platforms can scale, dominate markets, and gain enough monopoly power that they can dictate conditions of exchange or develop monopsonistic positions in their labor markets (Dube et al. 2018, Khan 2017).”
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Interpretationcitation§ INTRODUCTIONPlatforms represent a shift from closed to open employment and a consequent retreat from direct control.
“In particular, we focus on the shift from closed to open employment and the consequent retreat (Schor 2020) from direct control that platforms represent.”
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Premisecitation§ The Digital CageWorkers often devise tactics that enable them to evade, defy, or subvert the dictates of the assembly line.
“Yet as industrial sociology eventually revealed, workers often devise tactics that enable them to evade, defy, or subvert the dictates of the assembly line (Hamper 1991).”
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Premisecitation§ ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTIONPlatform work includes architects and technologists of the platforms, who are founders, highly skilled employees, and independent contractors.
“The first category includes the architects and technologists of the platforms, who are founders, highly skilled employees, and independent contractors.”
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Interpretationnone given§ ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTIONWorkers stand in different relations to the platform architecture, with architects serving as active designers while microtaskers and many gig workers are mainly passive recipients or users of the platform's affordances.
“Furthermore, workers stand in different relations to the platform architecture, with architects serving as active designers (digital orthopedists), while others (microtaskers and many gig workers) are mainly passive recipients or users of the platform's affordances.”
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Interpretationreasoning§ Incubators of EntrepreneurialismIt is unlikely that platforms will foster crowd-based capitalism or lead power and control to assume horizontal, peer-based configurations.
“it is unlikely that platforms will foster crowd-based capitalism or lead power and control to assume horizontal, peer-based configurations.”
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Premisecitation§ ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTIONPlatform work includes microtasking performed entirely online, as represented by workers engaged on Amazon Mechanical Turk or Figure Eight.
“A fourth type of platform work is performed entirely online, involving what is termed microtasking, as represented by workers engaged on Amazon Mechanical Turk (AMT) or Figure Eight (formerly CrowdFlower).”
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Interpretationreasoning§ AbstractStruggles over regulatory regimes are dynamic and difficult to predict, but they are sure to gain in prominence as the platform economy grows.
“Reflecting the instability of the platform structure, struggles over regulatory regimes are dynamic and difficult to predict, but they are sure to gain in prominence as the platform economy grows.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The platform economy will continue to grow.
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Interpretationreasoning§ INTRODUCTIONEach of the four major metaphors of platform work contains a partial truth but also exhibits elements of distortion concerning the affordances that platforms actually exhibit.
“Subjecting these images to critique, we find that while each contains a partial truth, each also exhibits elements of distortion concerning the affordances that platforms actually exhibit.”
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Premisecitation§ ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTIONPlatform work includes cloud-based consultants or freelancers who offer professional services via platforms such as UpWork or Freelancer.
“A second type of platform work is performed by cloud-based consultants or freelancers who offer professional services via platforms such as UpWork or Freelancer.”
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Interpretationnone given§ ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTIONPlatform work varies over time, owing to frequent changes in algorithmic designs, market conditions, and regulatory policy.
“Platform work also varies over time, owing to frequent changes in algorithmic designs, market conditions, and regulatory policy.”
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Interpretationnone given§ Permissive PotentatesPlatforms represent a nascent and highly dynamic economic form characterized by high levels of instability whose future is difficult to foresee.
“we caution that platforms represent a nascent and highly dynamic economic form characterized by high levels of instability whose future is difficult to foresee.”
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Interpretationcitation§ Permissive PotentatesPlatforms selectively incorporate features of prior economic structures, generating a type of governance mechanism qualitatively distinct from its precursors.
“While platforms incorporate many of the features of prior economic structures-markets, hierarchies, and networks (Powell 1990)-they do so selectively, generating a type of governance mechanism that is qualitatively distinct from its precursors (Aneesh 2009, Kornberger et al. 2017).”
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Interpretationreasoning§ Accelerants of PrecarityThe third image of platform work is more cautious about the transformative nature of institutional shifts.
“By contrast, the third image of platform work is more cautious about the transformative nature of institutional shifts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone given§ Accelerants of PrecarityThe first two images of platform work share the premise that labor platforms represent novel entities that signal a dramatic break with prior forms of work organization and economic activity.
“However different they are from one another, the first two images share the premise that labor platforms represent novel entities that signal a dramatic break, or rupture, with prior forms of work organization and economic activity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Permissive PotentatesThe labor process acquires a new geometry in which control is radically distributed while power remains centralized.
“In effect, the labor process acquires a new geometry, in which ' control is radically distributed, while power remains centralized' (Kornberger et al. 2017, p. 79, emphasis added).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kornberger et al. 2017
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ Permissive PotentatesAlthough platforms create value, their profits often depend on the ability to externalize costs that conventional firms must pay, a form of free riding.
“Although platforms do create value-for example, by enabling more efficient operations and exchanges-their profits often depend on the ability to externalize the costs that conventional firms must pay (a form of free riding; see Schor et al. 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schor et al. 2019
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Permissive PotentatesSome platforms benefit from network effects, producing concentrated markets and user lock-in, or from harvesting user data as a collateral source of value.
“Some platforms also benefit from network effects, producing the concentrated markets and user lock-in that investors find so attractive, or from the harvesting of user data as a collateral source of value (see Rosenblat 2018; Srnicek 2016; Zuboff 2015, 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Rosenblat 2018 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Srnicek 2016
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Zuboff 2015, 2019
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Accelerants of PrecarityThe effect of this trend is to commodify labor time and disembed the worker from prior systems of social protection.
“The effect, initially evident in temporary work and subcontracting, is to commodify labor time and disembed the worker from prior systems of social protection (Polanyi 1944, Wood et al. 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Polanyi 1944
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Wood et al. 2019
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ Accelerants of PrecarityPlatform earnings may decrease precarity and compensate for poor benefits or low wages in primary jobs or help reduce debt or build savings.
“In such cases, platform earnings may actually decrease precarity and compensate for poor benefits or low wages in primary jobs or help reduce debt or build savings (Schor et al. 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schor et al. 2019
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Permissive PotentatesThe platform firm retains authority over allocation of tasks, collection of data, pricing of services, and collection of revenues, but cedes control over specification of work methods, work schedules, and performance evaluation.
“The platform firm retains authority over important functions-the allocation of tasks, collection of data, pricing of services, and of course collection of revenues-but it cedes control over others, such as the specification of work methods, control over work schedules, and the labor of performance evaluation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ Permissive PotentatesPlatforms represent a distinctively new form of economic activity.
“we contend that platforms represent a distinctively new form of economic activity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ Accelerants of PrecarityDependency status, how reliant platform workers are on earnings for basic living expenses, is a key determinant of outcomes.
“Schor et al. (2019) have argued that dependency status (i.e., how reliant platform workers are on their earnings to pay their basic living expenses) is a key determinant of outcomes”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schor et al. 2019
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Accelerants of PrecaritySupplemental earners earn higher wages, exercise more autonomy over their conditions of work, and are more satisfied than dependent platform workers.
“Thus, they earn higher wages, exercise more autonomy over their conditions of work, and are more satisfied than those who are dependent (Schor et al. 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schor et al. 2019
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ The Digital CageAlgorithmic controls can and do inscribe managerial interests.
“There is little question that algorithmic controls can and do inscribe managerial interests.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone given§ PLATFORMS AND THE SHARING ECONOMY: AN AGENDA FOR RESEARCHIn ridehail and delivery, local provisioning means the absence of network effects and should make small cooperative entities viable.
“In ridehail and delivery, local provisioning means the absence of network effects and should make small cooperative entities viable.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone given§ PLATFORMS AND THE SHARING ECONOMY: AN AGENDA FOR RESEARCHSMart and Stocksy engage high-skilled earners.
“SMart and Stocksy engage high-skilled earners.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: SMart is a freelancers' cooperative with 35,000 members.
- Rests on an assumption: SMart has been functioning since 1998.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisereasoning§ CONCLUSIONThese analysts tend to share a common narrative.
“They tend to share a common narrative.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ Permissive PotentatesPlatforms transform the employment relationship by relinquishing control over selection, work methods, schedules, and performance evaluation, offering an open employment relation.
“By contrast, platforms typically relinquish control over these processes, offering an open employment relation that greatly relaxes personnel selection criteria and affords workers considerable autonomy over when and how often to work (Schor et al. 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schor et al. 2019
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Study design and conductnone given§ DISCLOSURE STATEMENTThe authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
“The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationreasoning§ CONCLUSIONFrom the point of view of labor and the future of work, platforms should be thought of as a new economic form, distinct from markets, firms, and networks.
“We have added a fifth, which contends that from the point of view of labor and the future of work, platforms should be thought of as a new economic form, distinct from markets, firms, and networks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ CONCLUSIONMost of these accounts feature the superplatform future as one of superexploitation, surveillance, and even more powerful corporate rule.
“Most of these accounts feature this future as one of superexploitation, surveillance, and even more powerful corporate rule (Frenken 2017; Kenney & Zysman 2016, 2019; Pasquale 2016; Srnicek 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Frenken 2017
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Kenney & Zysman 2016, 2019
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- cites Pasquale 2016
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May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ PLATFORMS AND THE SHARING ECONOMY: AN AGENDA FOR RESEARCHStocksy United, a platform cooperative, resulted in better economic conditions and more satisfaction for its photographers.
“Sulakshana et al. (2018) found that Stocksy United, a platform cooperative, resulted in better economic conditions and more satisfaction for its photographers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sulakshana et al. (2018)
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ CONCLUSIONNumerous analysts have attempted to predict the future of platforms.
“numerous analysts have attempted to predict the future of platforms (Frenken 2017; Kenney & Zysman 2015, 2016; Pasquale 2016; Scholz 2016b; Schor 2020; Srnicek 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Frenken 2017
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Kenney & Zysman 2015, 2016
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Pasquale 2016
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ CONCLUSIONThe stability of the current platform configuration remains in doubt.
“However, as we noted, the stability of the current configuration remains in doubt”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The platform economy will continue to grow.
“as the platform economy grows”
The paper relies on this without support.
Extracting profit from workers requires potent mechanisms of control.
“The history of capitalism suggests that extracting profit from workers requires potent mechanisms of control.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Labor platforms have established themselves as important players in domestic and increasingly global labor markets.
“Originally considered a curious novelty, labor platforms have now established themselves as important players in domestic and, increasingly, global labor markets.”
The paper relies on this without support.
SMart is a freelancers' cooperative with 35,000 members.
“In Europe, SMart, a successful freelancers' cooperative with 35,000 members, has been functioning since 1998.”
The paper relies on this without support.
SMart has been functioning since 1998.
“In Europe, SMart, a successful freelancers' cooperative with 35,000 members, has been functioning since 1998.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In carework, agencies capture rents for reputational assurance.
“The hope is that coops can also improve conditions for lower-wage workers in occupations such as carework, where agencies capture rents for reputational assurance, and housecleaning, where informality reigns.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In housecleaning, informality reigns.
“The hope is that coops can also improve conditions for lower-wage workers in occupations such as carework, where agencies capture rents for reputational assurance, and housecleaning, where informality reigns.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Online gig platforms can automatically match clients and workers, streamline transactions, and manage reviews, tasks that overlap with middle-skilled workers' duties.
“Online gig platforms can automatically match clients and housekeeping workers, streamline transactions, and manage reviews (Vallas and Schor 2020), tasks that heavily overlap with the duties of incumbent middle-skilled workers.”
From Skill-Biased Technical Change, Again? Online Gig Platforms and Local Employment (2025) · cites this paper as Vallas and Schor 2020
In “ADVENT OF THE PLATFORM REVOLUTION” (page unavailable), the paper describes gig workers engaging with customers through platforms and describes digitally mediated transactions. In “PLATFORMS AND THE SHARING ECONOMY: AN AGENDA FOR RESEARCH” (page unavailable), it discusses customer reviews and ratings. These passages support the general platform functions, but do not establish that platforms automatically match housekeeping workers with clients or streamline their transactions. The statement about middle-skilled workers follows the citation and is not assessed as attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredRecent studies recognize gig platforms as catalysts for entrepreneurial ventures.
“This perspective is supported by several recent studies that recognized gig platforms as catalysts for entrepreneurial ventures (e.g., Barrios et al. 2020, Vallas andSchor 2020).”
From Skill-Biased Technical Change, Again? Online Gig Platforms and Local Employment (2025) · cites this paper as Vallas and Schor 2020
In “Incubators of Entrepreneurialism” (page unavailable), Vallas and Schor describe the view that platforms lower barriers and enable people to earn from their assets. They acknowledge some truth in that view but argue that platforms are unlikely to foster the envisioned crowd-based capitalism. The claim omits this substantial qualification. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOnline gig platforms lower entry barriers for workers and thereby promote self-employment opportunities.
“Third, online gig platforms lower barriers for workers to enter the job market, thus promoting selfemployment opportunities (Vallas and Schor 2020).”
From Skill-Biased Technical Change, Again? Online Gig Platforms and Local Employment (2025) · cites this paper as Vallas and Schor 2020
Differences across platform work types include the level of skill, the spatial dispersion of the work, and the nature of the employment relation.
“Differences across these types include the level of skill, the spatial dispersion of the work (Vallas and Schor 2020) and the nature of the employment relation.”
From Dependence and precarity in the platform economy (2020) · cites this paper as Vallas and Schor 2020
Many platform workers use the work to complement income, and precarisation through platform work is far from a universal trend.
“Vallas and Schor reject an assumed view of platform workers that is overly homogeneous.Many platform workers in fact use the work to complement income, precarisation through platform is far from a universal trend.”
From Artificial intelligence and work: a critical review of recent research from the social sciences (2024) · cites this paper as Vallas and Schor 2020
Vallas and Schor conclude that power asymmetry rather than horizontal democracy has so far been the experience of workers.
“Vallas and Schor reference a large number of studies on working conditions for appworkers (see the more recent Moore and Woodstock 2021), and conclude that power asymmetry rather than horizontal democracy has so far been the experience of workers.”
From Artificial intelligence and work: a critical review of recent research from the social sciences (2024) · cites this paper as Vallas and Schor 2020
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Dependence and precarity in the platform economy
Schor, J. B., Attwood-Charles, W., Cansoy, M., Ladegaard, I., & Wengronowitz, R. (2020) · Theory and Society · doi:10.1007/s11186-020-09408-y · Cited by 550 · see citing works
“A number of observers have produced typologies of types of work in the platform economy (Kenney and Zysman 2019; Vallas and Schor 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Invisible Cage: Workers’ Reactivity to Opaque Algorithmic Evaluations
Rahman, H. A. (2021) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.1177/00018392211010118 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
“…platforms control aspects of how workers must act when working for them, but workers can technically set their own schedules, receive remuneration on a per-project basis, and use their own tools, resources, or equipment to complete the work (Shapiro, 2017; Vallas and Schor, 2020; Cameron, 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialCottom, T. M. (2020) · Sociology of Race and Ethnicity · doi:10.1177/2332649220949473 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Working on my own: Measuring the challenges of gig work
Caza, B. B., Reid, E. M., Ashford, S. J., & Granger, S. (2022) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/00187267211030098 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
“Even when controlling for gig-income dependence, which has been suggested to be a factor shaping gig workers’ experiences (Kuhn and Maleki, 2017; Vallas and Schor, 2020), those who earned the least overall reported higher levels of the challenges than did those who earned the most.”
BackgroundJoyce, K. A., Smith‐Doerr, L., Alegria, S. N., Bell, S. E., Cruz, T. M., Hoffman, S., Noble, S., & Shestakofsky, B. (2021) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023121999581 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
“ML systems may also draw on real-time data generated within the conduct of life itself, including the large volumes of data generated through everyday use of computer technologies and sensor devices such as smart phones and security cameras (Greenfield 2018; Neff and Nafus 2016; van Dijck 2014).”
BackgroundMantello, P., Ho, M.-T., Nguyen, M.-H., & Vuong, Q. (2021) · Ai & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-021-01290-1 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
“Given the increase in teleworking practices due to COVID-19 and the fact that many business enterprises are now creating their own platforms to monitor work engagement, concentration and performance levels at a distance (Vallas and Schor 2020), our findings are timely and poignant.”
BackgroundAutomation, APIs and the distributed labour of platform pedagogies in google classroom
Perrotta, C., Gulson, K. N., Williamson, B., & Witzenberger, K. (2021) · Critical Studies in Education · doi:10.1080/17508487.2020.1855597 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Gig work as migrant work: The platformization of migration infrastructure
van Doorn, N., & Vijay, D. (2024) · Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space · doi:10.1177/0308518x211065049 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“…of the business models, legal arrangements, and management techniques that enable platform companies to extract maximum value from gig workers while taking little to no responsibility for their physical, mental, or economic security (e.g. Chen, 2018; Vallas and Schor, 2020; Wood et al., 2019).”
Background“‘Making out’ While Driving: Relational and Efficiency Games in the Gig Economy.”
Cameron, L. D. (2022) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2021.1547 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
“…explores how algorithms and digital platforms restructure work (e.g., Curchod et al. 2019; Kellogg et al. 2020; Lee et al. 2015; Rahman 2021; Vallas and Schor 2020), only few studies have examined how such changes—notably, the lack of traditional organizational scaffolds (e.g.,…”
BackgroundAlgorithmic management in food‐delivery platform economy in China
Huang, H. (2022) · New Technology Work and Employment · doi:10.1111/ntwe.12228 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Algorithmic Management: Bright and Dark Sides, Practical Implications, and Research Opportunities
Benlian, A., Wiener, M., Cram, W. A., Krasnova, H., Maedche, A., Möhlmann, M., Recker, J., & Remus, U. (2022) · Business & Information Systems Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12599-022-00764-w · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“Relatedly, other even more dystopian studies emphasize the vast power asymmetries and the looming precariousness enabled and cemented by algorithmic management (Spiekermann et al. 2022; Vallas and Schor 2020).”
BackgroundGig work and gig workers: An integrative review and agenda for future research
Wu, D., & Huang, J. L. (2024) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2775 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Gender, Class, and the Gig Economy: The Case of Platform-Based Food Delivery
Milkman, R., Elliott-Negri, L., Griesbach, K., & Reich, A. D. (2020) · Critical Sociology · doi:10.1177/0896920520949631 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“For women and men alike, an enormously appealing feature of platform-based work is the absence of human on-the-job supervision (Vallas and Schor, 2020), as many of our interviewees noted.”
BackgroundÜber-Alienated: Powerless and Alone in the Gig Economy
Glavin, P., Bierman, A., & Schieman, S. (2021) · Work and Occupations · doi:10.1177/07308884211024711 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“This distancing ensures the primacy of the platform’s position as intermediary (Vallas & Schor, 2020), much in the same way that temporary staffing 406 Work and Occupations 48(4) agencies seek to prevent clients from directly hiring temporary workers (Elcioglu, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialWork as a social determinant of health in high-income countries: past, present, and future
Frank, J., Mustard, C., Smith, P., Siddiqi, A., Cheng, Y., Burdorf, A., & Rugulies, R. (2023) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(23)00871-1 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Future of digital work: Challenges for sustainable human resources management
Dabić, M., Maley, J. F., Švarc, J., & Poček, J. (2023) · Journal of Innovation & Knowledge · doi:10.1016/j.jik.2023.100353 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Sun, P., Chen, Y.-J., & Rani, U. (2021) · Work Employment and Society · doi:10.1177/09500170211021570 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“…platforms to WeChat differs from the control regime of the platform work that is characterised by externalising responsibilities and risks (Vallas and Schor, 2020) in that the food-delivery platforms exploit the stickiness of WeChat and entrap couriers into a wider mediated labour control…”
BackgroundDi, K., Chen, W., Shi, Q., Cai, Q., & Zhang, B. (2024) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.141332 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
van Doorn, N., & Chen, J. Y. (2021) · Socio-Economic Review · doi:10.1093/ser/mwab028 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Cameron, L. D. (2024) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.1177/00018392241236163 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Wood, A. J., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2021) · Socio-Economic Review · doi:10.1093/ser/mwab016 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Bibri, S. E., Allam, Z., & Krogstie, J. (2022) · Computational Urban Science · doi:10.1007/s43762-022-00051-0 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“Delegat-ing control among actors is about exercising power over economic transactions by platforms, as apposed to hierarchies in terms of centralized power, markets as regards dispersed power, or networks as to parcelling power out to trusted collaborators (Vallas and Schor (2020).”
BackgroundThe Sharing Economy: Rhetoric and Reality
Schor, J. B., & Vallas, S. P. (2021) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-082620-031411 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Self-citationNew tech, old exploitation: Gig economy, algorithmic control and migrant labour
Lata, L. N., Burdon, J., & Reddel, T. (2022) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.13028 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
A global analysis of worker protest in digital labour platforms
Bessa, I., Joyce, S., Neumann, D., Umney, C., Stuart, M., & Trappmann, V. (2022) · International Labour Office eBooks · doi:10.54394/ctng4947 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Boundaryless careers and algorithmic constraints in the gig economy
Duggan, J., Sherman, U., Carbery, R., & McDonnell, A. (2022) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2021.1953565 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“By possessing a temporally embedded capacity to intentionally monitor and constrain worker activities (Vallas & Schor, 2020), algorithmic technologies digitally regulate interactions between parties and complicate the level of independence afforded to workers (Panteli et al., 2020).”
Schüßler, E., Attwood-Charles, W., Kirchner, S., & Schor, J. B. (2021) · Socio-Economic Review · doi:10.1093/ser/mwab038 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Self-citationArtificial intelligence and work: a critical review of recent research from the social sciences
Deranty, J.-P., & Corbin, T. (2024) · AI & SOCIETY · doi:10.1007/s00146-022-01496-x · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“To find some bearings in the large literature dedicated to platform work, one of the most useful resources to consult is the review by leading sociologists of work Vallas and Schor (2020).”
InfluentialThe Side Hustle Safety Net: Precarious Workers and Gig Work during COVID-19
Ravenelle, A. J., Kowalski, K. C., & Janko, E. (2021) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1177/07311214211005489 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Taming Platform Power: Taking Accountability into Account in the Management of Platforms
Rahman, H. A., Karunakaran, A., & Cameron, L. D. (2024) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2022.0090 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Algorithmic Management in Organizations? From Edge Case to Center Stage
Keegan, A., & Meijerink, J. (2025) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110622-070928 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Dependency and Hardship in the Gig Economy: The Mental Health Consequences of Platform Work
Glavin, P., & Schieman, S. (2022) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231221082414 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Gamification and work games: Examining consent and resistance among Uber drivers
Vasudevan, K., & Chan, N. K. (2022) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448221079028 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“Another key arena that Vallas and Schor (2020) have drawn attention to is understanding how contextual factors, such as demographics and platform dependence drive the modes of play and shape workers’ willingness to play by the gami-fied rules in algorithmic management.”
BackgroundMethodWu, X., Liu, Q., Qu, H., & Wang, J. (2022) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2022.104716 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Rural co-working: New network spaces and new opportunities for a smart countryside
Bosworth, G. R. F., Whalley, J., Füzi, A., Merrell, I., Chapman, P., & Russell, E. (2023) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2023.01.003 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“In particular, the indi-vidualisation of work, combined with low-cost software and an explosion of cloud-based and mobile app-based digital services allow co-workers to operate relatively independently (Vallas and Schor, 2020).”
BackgroundTogether But Alone: Atomization and Peer Support among Gig Workers
Yao, Z. Q., Weden, S., Emerlyn, L., Zhu, H., & Kraut, R. E. (2021) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3479535 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
OnlyFans as gig-economy work: a nexus of precarity and stigma
Easterbrook-Smith, G. (2022) · Porn Studies · doi:10.1080/23268743.2022.2096682 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“…economies occurred in the wake of the financial crisis of the late ’00s, and the expansion of the casualization of work (which had previously been facilitated by temp agencies) is intrinsically linked to the possibilities afford by the internet (Zwick 2018; Vallas and Schor 2020; Levitt 2021).”
InfluentialThe Gig Economy: Current Issues, the Debate, and the New Avenues of Research
Malik, R., Visvizi, A., & Skrzek-Lubasińska, M. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13095023 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Biopolitical platforms: the perverse virtues of digital labour
Gregory, K., & Sadowski, J. (2021) · Journal of Cultural Economy · doi:10.1080/17530350.2021.1901766 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Theorising labour unrest and trade unionism in the platform economy
Joyce, S., Stuart, M., & Forde, C. (2023) · New Technology, Work and Employment · doi:10.1111/ntwe.12252 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Lee, C., & Zhou, W. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120680 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
A Relational Work Perspective on the Gig Economy: Doing Creative Work on Digital Labour Platforms
Alacovska, A., Bucher, E., & Fieseler, C. (2024) · Work, Employment and Society · doi:10.1177/09500170221103146 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“In parallel with the increasing number of services transitioning to platform-centred business models of delivery, recent years have seen a growing academic interest in the gig economy (Vallas and Schor, 2020; Wood et al., 2019a).”
BackgroundInfluentialKuhn, K. M., Meijerink, J., & Keegan, A. (2021) · Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management · doi:10.1108/s0742-730120210000039001 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Trapped in the platform: Migration and precarity in China's platform-based gig economy
Zhou, Y. (2022) · Environment and Planning A Economy and Space · doi:10.1177/0308518x221119196 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“…’ precarity focused primarily on legal, technological and managerial factors within the labour process, highlighting how these factors simultaneously create a highly tilted playing fi eld that favours capital against labour, and manufacture workers ’ consent to precar-ity (Vallas and Schor, 2020).”
BackgroundEmotional AI and the future of wellbeing in the post-pandemic workplace
Mantello, P. A., & Ho, T. M. (2023) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-023-01639-8 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“Yet the opacity in machinic decisionism is further prob-lematized by the fact that many multinational corporations using emotional AI are setting up partnerships with local businesses in regions where data privacy regulations and legislation are less stringent (Henning 2019; Vallas and Schor 2020).”
BackgroundPulignano, V., Grimshaw, D., Domecka, M., & Vermeerbergen, L. (2023) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/00187267231179901 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“…performance management and monitoring of platform workers (Kellogg et al., 2020), they are also highly differentiated in the skill complexity of tasks and in the design and application of algorithm technologies, especially regarding opportunities for management mediation (Vallas and Schor, 2020).”
InfluentialDriving the digital value network: Economic geographies of global platform capitalism
Howson, K., Ferrari, F., Ustek‐Spilda, F., Salem, N., Johnston, H., Katta, S., Heeks, R., & Graham, M. (2021) · Global Networks · doi:10.1111/glob.12358 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Socially Responsible Human Resource Management: A Systematic Literature Review and Research Agenda
Omidi, A., & Zotto, C. D. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14042116 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Keegan, A. E., & Meijerink, J. (2022) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.22120 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“Algorithmic management and control over workers are core tools in achieving these aims (Prassl, 2018; Rosenblat, 2018; Vallas & Schor, 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialPrinciples of Algorithmic Management
Stark, D., & Broeck, P. V. (2024) · Organization Theory · doi:10.1177/26317877241257213 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“2 To be clear: bringing labor process theory into the analysis of algorithmic management can bring historical depth to the study of the latter (Vallas & Schor, 2020; Vertesi et al., 2020).”
Dynamics of contention in the gig economy: Rage against the platform, customer or state?
Wood, A. J., Martindale, N., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2023) · New Technology, Work and Employment · doi:10.1111/ntwe.12216 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Algorithmic management and the politics of demand: Control and resistance at Uber
McDaid, E., Andon, P., & Free, C. W. (2023) · Accounting Organizations and Society · doi:10.1016/j.aos.2023.101465 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
, Algorithmic Management in the Platform Economy
Stark, D., & Pais, I. (2021) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.6092/issn.1971-8853/12221 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“We re-state them here because what is not obvious (in much of the research on algorithmic management) is that this triangular geometry (Vallas & Schor, 2020, p. 282) and the power asymmetries along its various axes are key to understanding algorithmic management in the platform economy.”
BackgroundCharting platform capitalism: Definitions, concepts and ideologies
Liang, Y., Aroles, J., & Brandl, B. (2022) · New technology, work and employment · doi:10.1111/ntwe.12234 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Mendonça, P., & Kougiannou, N. K. (2022) · New Technology Work and Employment · doi:10.1111/ntwe.12251 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Values and Ethics in Information Systems
Spiekermann, S., Krasnova, H., Hinz, O. F., Baumann, A., Benlian, A., Gimpel, H., Heimbach, I., Köster, A., Maedche, A., Niehaves, B., et al. (2022) · Business & Information Systems Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12599-021-00734-8 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Second, there is an abundance of research on platform operators and service providers, yet a dearth of research on the developers who create the matching and control algorithms at the core of the platform’s operations and scalability (Vallas and Schor 2020).”
BackgroundConsent and Contestation: How Platform Workers Reckon with the Risks of Gig Labor
Schor, J. B., Tirrell, C., & Vallas, S. P. (2023) · Work Employment and Society · doi:10.1177/09500170231199404 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citationBieber, F., & Moggia, J. (2020) · Journal of Political Philosophy · doi:10.1111/jopp.12233 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Nudes? Shouldn’t I charge for these?”: Motivations of New Sexual Content Creators on OnlyFans
Hamilton, V., Soneji, A., McDonald, A., & Redmiles, E. M. (2023) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3544548.3580730 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“They are forced to take on additional costs such as damage to tools, injury costs, and unpaid gaps between paid gigs [111, 120].”
BackgroundInfluentialAuthoritarianism, Populism, and the Global Retreat of Democracy: A Curated Discussion
Adler, P. S., Adly, A., Armanios, D. E., Battilana, J., Bodrožić, Z., Clegg, S., Davis, G. F., Gartenberg, C., Glynn, M. A., Aslan Gümüsay, A., et al. (2023) · Journal of Management Inquiry · doi:10.1177/10564926221119395 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“It is critical these studies account for the evolution of both of fl ine and virtual forms of organizing, as the emergence of new online platforms raises important questions regarding power and inequality that also merit further inquiry (Bernholz et al., 2021; Tufekci, 2017; Vallas & Schor, 2020).”
The Drama of Metrics: Status, Spectacle, and Resistance Among YouTube Drama Creators
Christin, A., & Lewis, R. (2021) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/2056305121999660 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Wang, C., Chen, J., & Xie, P. (2022) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2022.102548 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Platform Precarity: Surviving Algorithmic Insecurity in the Gig EconomyPreprint
Wood, A. J., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3795375 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Thompson, P., & Laaser, K. (2021) · Work in the Global Economy · doi:10.1332/273241721x16276384832119 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Dunn, M., Muñoz, I., & Jarrahi, M. H. (2023) · Digital Business · doi:10.1016/j.digbus.2022.100052 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
The politics of vulnerability in the influencer economy
Duffy, B. E., Ononye, A., & Sawey, M. (2023) · European Journal of Cultural Studies · doi:10.1177/13675494231212346 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Platform couriers' self‐exploitation: The case study of Glovo
VIEIRA, T. A. (2023) · New Technology Work and Employment · doi:10.1111/ntwe.12272 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Driven to succeed, or to leave? The variable impact of self-leadership in rideshare gig work
Crayne, M. P., & Brawley, A. M. (2023) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2023.2211712 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Gig workers who can effectively self-lead and operate within the algorithmic constraints of platforms have been argued to experience more positive outcomes (e.g. Ashford et al., 2018; Hirschi, 2018; Vallas & Schor, 2020).”
BackgroundMaking a Living in the Creator Economy: A Large-Scale Study of Linking on YouTube
Rieder, B., Borra, E., Coromina, Ò., & Matamoros-Fernández, A. (2023) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051231180628 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“…due to a continuously changing landscape of platforms, terms of service, pay rates, competences, and intermediaries, making the creator economy more often than not part of a larger “gig economy” that faces considerable economic instability (Duffy, 2017; Scolere et al., 2018; Vallas & Schor, 2020).”
BackgroundNeely, M. T., Sheehan, P., & Williams, C. L. (2023) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-034202 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The Solutionist Ethic and the Spirit of Digital Capitalism
Nachtwey, O., & Seidl, T. (2023) · Theory Culture & Society · doi:10.1177/02632764231196829 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“…use of digital surveillance and manipulation (Tirole, 2021; Zuboff, 2019); others on the central role of digital platforms (Stark and Pais, 2020; Vallas and Schor, 2020) or the (variegated) organizational logic of digital capitalism (Davis and Sinha, 2021; Rahman and Thelen, 2019); yet others…”
BackgroundPlatform Labour and Contingent Agency in China
Sun, P., & Chen, Y.-J. (2021) · China Perspectives · doi:10.4000/chinaperspectives.11325 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Dialectical Anthropology 43(1): 3-14. arguably a crucial component and contributor (Vallas and Schor 2020).”
BackgroundWeber, C. E., Okraku, M., Mair, J., & Maurer, I. (2021) · Socio-Economic Review · doi:10.1093/ser/mwab008 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-branding strategies of online freelancers on Upwork
Blyth, D. L., Jarrahi, M. H., Lutz, C., & Newlands, G. (2022) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448221108960 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“However, searching for work as an online freelancer can be especially precarious, presenting challenges such as continuously finding new clients, bearing the costs of inadequate demand, and having to navigate complex and constantly changing platform dynamics (Vallas and Schor, 2020).”
BackgroundPrivate Eyes, They See Your Every Move: Workplace Surveillance and Worker Well-Being
Glavin, P., Bierman, A., & Schieman, S. (2024) · Social Currents · doi:10.1177/23294965241228874 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Several of these advances, including geolocation tracking and algorithmic surveillance, have recently received particular attention as part of their use by digital labor platforms to manage free-lancers and temporary workers in the growing gig economy (Vallas and Schor 2020).”
BackgroundMethodThe influencer pay gap: Platform labor meets racial capitalism
Christin, A., & Lu, Y.-D. (2023) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448231164995 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…and “platform economy” (Srnicek, 2017; Van Doorn, 2017), digital platforms have con-quered a growing number of domains of social life, typically serving as intermediaries between different categories of actors and making a profit from such intermediation (Gillespie, 2010; Vallas and Schor, 2020).”
Backgroundvan Zoonen, W., Sivunen, A. E., & Treem, J. W. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.108089 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Multiple jobholding in the digital platform economy: signs of segmentation
Ilsøe, A., Larsen, T. P., & Bach, E. S. (2021) · Transfer European Review of Labour and Research · doi:10.1177/1024258921992629 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Less researched is the interrelationship between the platform economy and the conventional labour market, as much research concentrates on the platform economy itself without considering the wider labour market (Vallas and Schor, 2020).”
BackgroundWaheed, A., Alharthi, M., Khan, S. Z., & Usman, M. (2022) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440221094608 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Shared economy is an approach in which organizations intent to hire part-time employees for a specific task or in order to support the full-time employees’ workload (Vallas & Schor, 2020; Wood & Lehdonvirta, 2021).”
BackgroundArriagada, A., Bonhomme, M., Ibáñez, F., & Leyton, J. (2023) · Digital Geography and Society · doi:10.1016/j.diggeo.2023.100063 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Platform Labour Unrest in a Global Perspective: How, Where and Why Do Platform Workers Protest?
Umney, C., Stuart, M., Bessa, I., Joyce, S., Neumann, D., & Trappmann, V. (2024) · Work Employment and Society · doi:10.1177/09500170231209676 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“This is not to discount the significance of such issues to platform workers, which can profoundly impact the quality of working life (Amorim and Moda, 2020; Chen, 2018; Vallas and Schor, 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialManaging workplace AI risks and the future of work
Howard, J., & Schulte, P. A. (2024) · American Journal of Industrial Medicine · doi:10.1002/ajim.23653 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Gig Economy Teaching: On the Importance and Dangers of Self-branding in Online Markets
Curran, N. M., & Jenks, C. J. (2022) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amac019 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Chen, J., Luo, J., Hu, W., & Ma, J. (2023) · Decision Support Systems · doi:10.1016/j.dss.2023.114016 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Pereira, V. E., Behl, A., Jayawardena, N. S., Laker, B., Dwivedi, Y. K., & Bhardwaj, S. (2022) · Production Planning & Control · doi:10.1080/09537287.2022.2083524 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“When considering social exchange theory, which emphasizes reciprocity, it is possible to understand how employees respond to their perceptions of whether the PC is being upheld (Banik and Padalkar 2021; Tan 2017; Vallas and Schor 2020).”
Bibliometric Analysis of Gig Economy
Batmunkh, A., Fekete‐Farkas, M., & Lakner, Z. (2022) · Administrative Sciences · doi:10.3390/admsci12020051 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Hybrid cities and new working spaces – The case of Oslo
Marino, M. D., Tabrizi, H. A., Chavoshi, S. H., & Sinitsyna, A. (2022) · Progress in Planning · doi:10.1016/j.progress.2022.100712 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Coavoux, S., Roques, N., & Carey-Libbrecht, L. (2020) · Réseaux · doi:10.3917/res.224.0169 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Kellogg, K. C. (2021) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2021.1445 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Anwar, M. A., & Graham, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198840800.001.0001 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Ray, A. (2024) · Environment and Planning A Economy and Space · doi:10.1177/0308518x231220296 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“…of individual service providers as ‘independent contractors’, while actively avoiding labour regulations that oblige them to accord workers with formal employee status and associated legal protections (see Bhatt, 2020; Stewart and Stanford, 2017; Vallas and Schor, 2020; Woodcock and Graham, 2019).”
BackgroundCrowdfunding artists: beyond match-making on platforms
Chiesa, C. D., & Dekker, E. (2019) · Socio-Economic Review · doi:10.1093/ser/mwab006 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Dedema, M., & Rosenbaum, H. (2024) · Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/asi.24868 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Posing the question of the ways in which platform work is represented metaphorically, Vallas and Schor (2020) find that platforms are described as “ entrepreneurial incubators, digital cages, accelerants of precarity, and chameleons adapting to their environments ” (p. 273); arguing that these…”
BackgroundKwan, H. (2022) · Critical Sociology · doi:10.1177/08969205221101451 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“…the labour process, especially algorithmic control (Chan, 2021; Galière, 2020; Gandini, 2019; Li, 2021; Rosenblat and Stark, 2016; Sun et al., 2021; Vallas and Schor, 2020; Van Doorn, 2017; Veen et al., 2020; Wood et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2019), and labour resistance and worker’s solidarity…”
BackgroundEnglish Language Teachers' Emotional Vulnerability in the Era of Self‐Branding on Social Media
Nejadghanbar, H., Song, J., & Hu, G. (2024) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.3312 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Fertility in High-Income Countries: Trends, Patterns, Determinants, and Consequences
Bloom, D. E., Kuhn, M., & Prettner, K. (2024) · Annual Review of Economics · doi:10.1146/annurev-economics-081523-013750 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Digitalised management, control and resistance in platform work: a labour process analysis
Joyce, S., & Stuart, M. (2021) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9781802205138.00017 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Morales, K., & Stecher, A. (2022) · New Technology Work and Employment · doi:10.1111/ntwe.12258 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Lin, P. M. C., Peng, K.-L., Au, W. C. W., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-12-2021-1531 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Kwan, H. (2022) · Gender & Development · doi:10.1080/13552074.2022.2118464 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…infrastructure (Van Doorn 2017; Van Doorn and Badger 2020), governed by the principles of an equal work relation, collective ownership, democratic decision-making process, open-sourced software, and transparent algorithms and data collection (Peticca-Harris et al. 2020; Vallas and Schor 2020).”
Background
- Authors
- Vallas, S., & Schor, J. B.
- Affiliations
- Northeastern University (US)
- Boston College (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Sociology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2020-07-30
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 273-294
- ISSN
- 0360-0572 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2115
- OpenAlex
- W3019960341
- Semantic Scholar
- 271690a646b29b26e82362522b572b4a2481b0f2
- Cited by
- 1,354
- References
- 102
- Citations by year
- 2026: 291 · 2025: 279 · 2024: 264 · 2023: 231 · 2022: 169 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 22.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Sociology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Economy and Work Transformation
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Industrial relations › Legal and Labor Studies
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Digital Platforms and Economics
- Keywords
- platform economy, platform work, gig economy, nature of work, employment, precarity, business incubators, governance mechanisms, platform regulation, concentration of power, economic transactions
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