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Cited by 730Nonprofit Sector and VolunteeringTourism, Volunteerism, and DevelopmentPsychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction

Is volunteering a public health intervention? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the health and survival of volunteers

Open access
Jenkinson, Caroline E, Dickens, Andy P, Jones, Kerry, Thompson-Coon, Jo, Taylor, Rod S, Rogers, Morwenna, Bambra, Clare L, Lang, Iain +1 more·2013·BMC Public Health
DOI 10.1186/1471-2458-13-773PMC PMC3766013
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Abstract

Background: Volunteering has been advocated by the United Nations, and American and European governments as a way to engage people in their local communities and improve social capital, with the potential for public health benefits such as improving wellbeing and decreasing health inequalities. Furthermore, the US Corporation for National and Community Service Strategic Plan for 2011–2015 focused on increasing the impact of national service on community needs, supporting volunteers’ wellbeing, and prioritising recruitment and engagement of underrepresented populations. The aims of this review were to examine the effect of formal volunteering on volunteers’ physical and mental health and survival, and to explore the influence of volunteering type and intensity on health outcomes. Methods: Experimental and cohort studies comparing the physical and mental health outcomes and mortality of a volunteering group to a non-volunteering group were identified from twelve electronic databases (Cochrane Library, Medline, Embase, PsychINFO, CINAHL, ERIC, HMIC, SSCI, ASSIA, Social Care Online, Social Policy and Practice) and citation tracking in January 2013. No language, country or date restrictions were applied. Data synthesis was based on vote counting and random effects meta-analysis of mortality risk ratios. Results: Forty papers were selected: five randomised controlled trials (RCTs, seven papers); four non-RCTs; and 17 cohort studies (29 papers). Cohort studies showed volunteering had favourable effects on depression, life satisfaction, wellbeing but not on physical health. These findings were not confirmed by experimental studies. Meta-analysis of five cohort studies found volunteers to be at lower risk of mortality (risk ratio: 0.78; 95% CI: 0.66, 0.90). There was insufficient evidence to demonstrate a consistent influence of volunteering type or intensity on outcomes. Conclusion: Observational evidence suggested that volunteering may benefit mental health and survival although the causal mechanisms remain unclear. Consequently, there was limited robustly designed research to guide the development of volunteering as a public health promotion intervention. Future studies should explicitly map intervention design to clear health outcomes as well as use pragmatic RCT methodology to test effects.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review and meta-analysis found observational evidence that formal volunteering may improve mental health and reduce mortality, but experimental evidence did not confirm consistent health benefits. The authors conclude there is limited robust evidence to guide volunteering as a public health intervention.

Key findings

  • Forty papers were included: 5 RCTs (7 papers), 4 non-RCTs, and 17 cohort studies (29 papers). Cohort studies showed favourable effects on depression, life satisfaction, and wellbeing, but not on physical health; these findings were not confirmed by experimental studies.
  • Meta-analysis of five cohort studies found volunteers had a lower risk of mortality (risk ratio: 0.78; 95% CI: 0.66, 0.90; I² test: p = 0.65), corresponding to a 22% reduction (CI: 10% to 34%).
  • Vote counting found no consistent significant health benefits in experimental studies; only single trials reported significant associations with increased physical activity, strength, walking speed, empowerment, wellbeing, and decreased stress.
  • There was insufficient evidence to demonstrate a consistent influence of volunteering type or intensity on outcomes.

Methods

  • Systematic review and meta-analysis following a pre-defined protocol and PRISMA; searches in January 2013 across twelve electronic databases plus citation tracking, with no language, country, or date restrictions.
  • Included experimental and cohort studies comparing physical and/or mental health outcomes and mortality in volunteers versus non-volunteers, adults aged 16 years and above; formal volunteering had to be regular and long-term, defined as a minimum of one hour a month on at least two occasions.
  • Data synthesis used vote counting for most outcomes and random-effects meta-analysis of mortality risk ratios; quality was appraised with the Cochrane risk of bias tool for RCTs and the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for cohort/non-RCT studies.

Limitations

  • The paper states that meta-analysis was possible only for survival data; other physical and mental health outcomes were restricted to vote counting due to heterogeneous interventions and study methods.
  • The paper states that generalisability is limited because most studies were based in the USA, involved community-dwelling people aged 50 years or over, and many non-USA studies reported cross-sectional data that were excluded.
  • The paper states that causal mechanisms remain unclear, selection effects and reverse causality cannot be conclusively ruled out, many cohort studies failed to fully describe volunteering status or measurement, and trial evidence was limited by small, likely underpowered samples and attrition.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1186/1471-2458-13-773

Cites

74 of 74 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 106 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingreasoning

    The review identified five independent RCTs.

    “As three RCT papers reported different outcomes collected at the same follow-up from the Experience Corps trial [30,35,58]; a total of five independent RCTs [33,37,54,62] were identified.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [33] Cohen A: Welfare clients’ volunteering as a means of empowerment. Nonprofit Volunt Sec Q. 2009, 38: 522-534. 10.1177/0899764008320196. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [37] George DR, Singer ME: Intergenerational volunteering and quality of life for persons with mild to moderate dementia: results from a 5-month intervention study in the United States. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2011, 19: 392-396. 10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181f17f20. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [54] Rook KS, Sorkin DH: Fostering social ties through a volunteer role: Implications for older-adults’ psychological health. Int J Aging Hum Dev. 2003, 57: 313-337. 10.2190/NBBN-EU3H-4Q1N-UXHR. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [62] Yuen HK, Huang P, Burik JK, Smith TG: Impact of participation in volunteer activities for residents living in long-term-care facilities. Am J Occup Ther. 2008, 62: 71-76. 10.5014/ajot.62.1.71. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingown data

    There was insufficient evidence to demonstrate a consistent influence of volunteering type or intensity on outcomes.

    “There was insufficient evidence to demonstrate a consistent influence of volunteering type or intensity on outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Cohort studies showed volunteering had favourable effects on depression.

    “Cohort studies showed volunteering had favourable effects on depression, life satisfaction, wellbeing but not on physical health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Cohort studies showed volunteering had no favourable effect on physical health.

    “Cohort studies showed volunteering had favourable effects on depression, life satisfaction, wellbeing but not on physical health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Cohort studies showed volunteering had favourable effects on life satisfaction.

    “Cohort studies showed volunteering had favourable effects on depression, life satisfaction, wellbeing but not on physical health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 30
  • May combine two claims. 28

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The review identified four non-RCTs.

    “Eleven papers reported RCTs (n = 7) [30,33,35,37,54,58,62] and non-RCTs (n = 4) [27,29,34,57].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [27] Belgrave M: The effect of a music therapy intergenerational program on children and older adults’ intergenerational interactions, cross-age attitudes, and older adults’ psychosocial well-being. J Music Ther. 2011, 48: 486-508. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [29] Carlson MC, Erickson KI, Kramer AF, Voss MW, Bolea N, Mielke M, McGill S, Rebok GW, Seeman T, Fried LP: Evidence for neurocognitive plasticity in at-risk older adults: the experience corps program. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2009, 64: 1275-1282. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [34] Dabelko-Schoeny H, Anderson KA, Spinks K: Civic engagement for older adults with functional limitations: piloting an intervention for adult day health participants. Gerontologist. 2010, 50: 694-701. 10.1093/geront/gnq019. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [57] Tan EJ, Rebok GW, Yu QL, Frangakis CE, Carlson MC, Wang T, Ricks M, Tanner EK, McGill S, Fried LP: The long-term relationship between high-intensity volunteering and physical activity in older African American women. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2009, 64: 304-311. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The review included 40 papers.

    “Forty papers were selected: five randomised controlled trials (RCTs, seven papers); four non-RCTs; and 17 cohort studies (29 papers).”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Forty papers were included in the review [9,25-63].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9,25-63]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Twenty-nine papers reported longitudinal analysis of cohort studies; 13 papers reported unique cohorts.

    “Twenty-nine papers reported longitudinal analysis of cohort studies; 13 papers reported unique cohorts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Volunteering status was significantly associated with improved wellbeing in three cohorts, but findings regarding volunteering intensity were inconsistent.

    “Volunteering status was significantly associated with improved wellbeing in three cohorts [25,28,31,51,52] (10–29 year follow-ups) but findings regarding volunteering intensity were inconsistent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [25] Son J, Wilson J: Volunteer work and hedonic, eudemonic, and social well-being. Sociological Forum. 2012, 27: 658-681. 10.1111/j.1573-7861.2012.01340.x. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [28] Bowman N, Brandenberger J, Lapsley D, Hill P, Quaranto J: Serving in college, flourishing in adulthood: does community engagement during the college years predict adult well-being?. Appl Psychol Health Wellbeing. 2010, 2: 14-34. 10.1111/j.1758-0854.2009.01020.x. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [31] Choi NG, Kim J: The effect of time volunteering and charitable donations in later life on psychological wellbeing. Ageing Soc. 2011, 31: 590-610. 10.1017/S0144686X10001224. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [51] Piliavin JA: Feeling good by doing good: health consequences of social service. Processes of community change and social action. 2005, Mahwah, New Jersey, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 29-50.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [52] Piliavin JA, Siegl E: Health benefits of volunteering in the Wisconsin longitudinal study. J Health Soc Behav. 2007, 48: 450-464. 10.1177/002214650704800408. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Volunteering was associated with reduced levels of depression in four cohorts, with two cohorts reporting no benefits.

    “Irrespective of how it was measured, volunteering was associated with reduced levels of depression in four cohorts [32,40-42,46,48,51,63], with two cohorts reporting no benefits [36,53].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [32] Choi NG, Bohman TM: Predicting the changes in depressive symptomatology in later life: how much do changes in health status, marital and caregiving status, work and volunteering, and health-related behaviors contribute?. J Aging Health. 2007, 19: 152-177. 10.1177/0898264306297602. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [40] Kim J, Pai M: Volunteering and trajectories of depression. J Aging Health. 2010, 22: 84-105. 10.1177/0898264309351310. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [41] Li Y, Ferraro KF: Volunteering and depression in later life: social benefit or selection processes?. J Health Soc Behav. 2005, 46: 68-84. 10.1177/002214650504600106. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [42] Li Y, Ferraro KF: Volunteering in middle and later life: is health a benefit, barrier or both?. Soc Forces. 2006, 85: 497-519. 10.1353/sof.2006.0132. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [46] Morrow-Howell N, Hinterlong J, Rozario PA, Tang F: Effects of volunteering on the well-being of older adults. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2003, 58: S137-S145. 10.1093/geronb/58.3.S137. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [48] Musick MA, Wilson J: Volunteering and depression: the role of psychological and social resources in different age groups. Soc Sci Med. 2003, 56: 259-269. 10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00025-4. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [51] Piliavin JA: Feeling good by doing good: health consequences of social service. Processes of community change and social action. 2005, Mahwah, New Jersey, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 29-50.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [63] Nazroo J, Matthews K: The impact of volunteering on well-being in later life. A report to WRVS. 2012, Cardiff, UK: WRVS

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [36] Fujiwara T, Kawachi I: A prospective study of individual-level social capital and major depression in the United States. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2008, 62: 627-633. 10.1136/jech.2007.064261. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [53] Pillemer K, Fuller-Rowell TE, Reid MC, Wells NM: Environmental volunteering and health outcomes over a 20-year period. Gerontologist. 2010, 50: 594-602. 10.1093/geront/gnq007. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Improved quality of life was associated with volunteering status in two cohorts but only if the activity was reciprocal.

    “Improved quality of life was associated with volunteering status in two cohorts [56,61,63] (2–5 year follow-ups) but only if the activity was reciprocal, i.e. the volunteer felt their actions to be appreciated [56,63].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [56] Siegrist J, Wahrendorf M: Participation in socially productive activities and quality of life in early old age: findings from SHARE. J Eur Soc Pol. 2009, 19: 317-326. 10.1177/1350506809341513. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [61] Wahrendorf M, Siegrist J: Are changes in productive activities of older people associated with changes in their well-being? Results of a longitudinal European study. Eur J Ageing. 2010, 7: 59-68. 10.1007/s10433-010-0154-4. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [63] Nazroo J, Matthews K: The impact of volunteering on well-being in later life. A report to WRVS. 2012, Cardiff, UK: WRVS

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most papers reporting cohort studies were large and well designed (25/29 low risk, 4/29 moderate risk).

    “In contrast, most papers reporting cohort studies (see Additional file 4: Table S4) were large and well designed (25/29 low risk, 4/29 moderate risk).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Three non-RCTs were at moderate risk of bias, and one non-RCT at low risk.

    “Quality appraisal of non-RCTs (see Additional file 4: Table S4) found three non-RCTs were at moderate risk of bias, and one non-RCT at low risk.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Volunteering was associated with improved self-efficacy for activities of daily living but not with happiness.

    “Volunteering was associated with improved self-efficacy for activities of daily living (one year follow-up) [55] but not with ‘happiness’ (25 year follow-up) [44].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [55] Shimanuki H, Honda H, Ito T, Kasai T, Takato J, Sakamoto Y, Inuzuka G, Ito Y, Arayama N, Ueki S, Haga H: Relationships between volunteerism and social-physical health and QOL with community-dwelling elderly participating in a long-term care prevention programme. [Japanese]. Nippon Koshu Eisei Zasshi. 2007, 54: 749-759.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [44] Menec VH: The relation between everyday activities and successful aging: a 6 year longitudinal study. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2003, 58B: S74-S82. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Heterogeneous findings were observed in the five trials investigating the health effects of intergenerational volunteering among older adults, with benefits reported for some elements of physical activity and cognitive function.

    “Heterogeneous findings were observed in the five trials [30,35,37,54,58,62] investigating the health effects of intergenerational volunteering among older adults, with benefits reported for some elements of physical activity and cognitive function.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [30] Carlson MC, Saczynski JS, Rebok GW, Seeman T, Glass TA, McGill S, Tielsch J, Frick KD, Hill J, Fried LP: Exploring the effects of an “everyday” activity program on executive function and memory in older adults: experience corps. Gerontologist. 2008, 48: 793-801. 10.1093/geront/48.6.793. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [35] Fried LP, Carlson MC, Freedman M, Frick KD, Glass TA, Hill J, McGill S, Rebok GW, Seeman T, Tielsch J, Wasik BA, Zeger S: A social model for health promotion for an aging population: initial evidence on the experience corps model. J Urban Health Bull N Y Acad Med. 2004, 81: 64-78. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [37] George DR, Singer ME: Intergenerational volunteering and quality of life for persons with mild to moderate dementia: results from a 5-month intervention study in the United States. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2011, 19: 392-396. 10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181f17f20. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [54] Rook KS, Sorkin DH: Fostering social ties through a volunteer role: Implications for older-adults’ psychological health. Int J Aging Hum Dev. 2003, 57: 313-337. 10.2190/NBBN-EU3H-4Q1N-UXHR. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [58] Tan EJ, Xue QL, Li T, Carlson MC, Fried LP: Volunteering: a physical activity intervention for older adults - the experience corps program in Baltimore. J Urban Health. 2006, 83: 954-969. 10.1007/s11524-006-9060-7. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [62] Yuen HK, Huang P, Burik JK, Smith TG: Impact of participation in volunteer activities for residents living in long-term-care facilities. Am J Occup Ther. 2008, 62: 71-76. 10.5014/ajot.62.1.71. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    While such adjustments strongly mediated survival, a significant effect remained.

    “While such adjustments strongly mediated survival, a significant effect remained.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    No significant effects were observed for depression, self-rated health or self-esteem in the trials of intergenerational volunteering among older adults.

    “No significant effects were observed for depression, self-rated health or self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    For mental health, volunteering had a favourable effect on depression, life satisfaction and wellbeing.

    “For mental health, volunteering had a favourable effect on depression, life satisfaction and wellbeing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Vote counting failed to identify any consistent beneficial effects of volunteering on either physical functional ability or self-rated health.

    “Vote counting failed to identify any consistent beneficial effects of volunteering on either physical functional ability or self-rated health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The small number of observational studies that stratified analysis by age found that older people may be more likely to experience reduced functional dependency and fewer depressive symptoms through volunteering compared with their younger counterparts, although one study found no such benefit.

    “The small number of observational studies that stratified analysis by age found that older people may be more likely to experience reduced functional dependency and fewer depressive symptoms through volunteering compared with their younger counterparts [40,42,48], although one study found no such benefit [45].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [40] Kim J, Pai M: Volunteering and trajectories of depression. J Aging Health. 2010, 22: 84-105. 10.1177/0898264309351310. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [42] Li Y, Ferraro KF: Volunteering in middle and later life: is health a benefit, barrier or both?. Soc Forces. 2006, 85: 497-519. 10.1353/sof.2006.0132. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [48] Musick MA, Wilson J: Volunteering and depression: the role of psychological and social resources in different age groups. Soc Sci Med. 2003, 56: 259-269. 10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00025-4. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [45] Moen P, Dempstermcclain D, Williams RM: Successful aging - a life-course perspective on women’s multiple roles and health. Am J Sociol. 1992, 97: 1612-1638. 10.1086/229941. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    The estimates of the prevalence of volunteering from observational studies are consistent with other sources.

    “Reassuringly, the estimates of the prevalence of volunteering from observational studies is consistent with other sources [3,5], which found the prevalence of volunteering is generally higher in the USA compared with European cohorts, and that older people may be less likely to volunteer than their younger counterparts [64].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3] Bureau of Labor Statistics - US Department of Labor: Volunteering in the United States - 2011. 2012, USA: Department of Labor

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] Mathou C: Volunteering in the European Union - final report. Educational, Audiovisual & Culture Executive Agency - Directorate General Education and Culture. 2010, London, UK: GHK

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    It is unclear what type or dose of volunteering activity is associated with the greatest health improvement, for which outcomes and for whom.

    “For example, it is unclear what type or dose of volunteering activity is associated with the greatest health improvement, for which outcomes and for whom.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    No language, country or date restrictions were applied.

    “No language, country or date restrictions were applied.”
    • Also stated in: § Search strategy · plain
      “Studies were identified without language, country or date restrictions, by searching electronic databases and scanning reference lists.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Observational evidence suggested that volunteering may benefit mental health and survival although the causal mechanisms remain unclear.

    “Observational evidence suggested that volunteering may benefit mental health and survival although the causal mechanisms remain unclear.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    To avoid double counting, where multiple papers from the same cohort reported the same outcome, only one vote per cohort was counted.

    “To avoid double counting, where multiple papers from the same population cohort reported the same outcome, only one vote per cohort was counted.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The Cochrane risk of bias tool was used to assess RCT quality, prioritising random sequence generation and incomplete outcome data.

    “The Cochrane risk of bias tool [19] was used to assess the quality of RCTs. Non-representative samples and high loss to follow-up rates were considered major threats to the external validity of community-based studies. Thus, two domains, random sequence generation and incomplete outcome data, were prioritised out of a possible seven domains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] The Cochrane Collaboration: The Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions (version 5.1.0). Edited by: Higgins JPT, Green S. 2011, http://www.cochrane-handbook.org/,

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Screening of titles and abstracts was done by one reviewer with uncertainties checked by a second, and full texts were screened independently by two reviewers.

    “One reviewer (CJ) screened all titles and abstracts for eligibility. Uncertainties were checked by a second reviewer (AD) with discrepancies resolved by discussion (CJ, AD and SR). The full text of potentially relevant articles was screened independently by two reviewers (CJ and SR or KJ); discrepancies were resolved by discussion with a third reviewer (SR or KJ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The review followed a pre-defined protocol.

    “This review followed a pre-defined protocol (http://clahrc-peninsula.nihr.ac.uk/includes/site/files/files/EST%20Docs/PenCLAHRC%20volunteering%20protocol%20(21_02_12).pdf), in accordance with the general principles published by the NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination [17] and PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) [18].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [17] Centre for Reviews and Dissemination: Systematic reviews. CRD’s guidance for undertaking reviews in health care. 2009, UK: Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, Univeristy of York

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [18] Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG: Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Br Med J. 2009, 339: 332-336. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Data were extracted by one reviewer and independently checked by a second using a standardised, piloted data extraction form.

    “Data were extracted by one reviewer (CJ) and independently checked by a second (KJ or SR) using a standardised, piloted data extraction form.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Given heterogeneity, meta-analyses of health outcomes were not possible; vote counting was used.

    “Given the statistical and methodological heterogeneity of studies, meta-analyses of health outcomes were not possible. Consistent with other published reviews [21,22], a more qualitative ‘vote counting’ [23] approach was undertaken.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [21] Flodgren G, Eccles MP, Shepperd S, Scott A, Parmelli E, Beyer FR: An overview of reviews evaluating the effectiveness of financial incentives in changing healthcare professional behaviours and patient outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011, 7: CD009255

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [22] Dickens AP, Richards SH, Greaves CJ, Campbell JL: Interventions targeting social isolation in older people: a systematic review. BMC Publ Health. 2011, 11: 647-10.1186/1471-2458-11-647. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [23] Bushman BJ: Vote-counting procedures in meta-analysis. The Handbook of Research Synthesis. Edited by: Cooper H, Hedges LV. 1984, New York, USA: Russell Sage, 193-213.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The methodological quality of each paper was appraised to generate a risk of bias score, used to aid interpretation only and not as a quality filter.

    “The methodological quality of each paper was appraised to generate a risk of bias score. These numerical scores were used to aid interpretation only and not as a quality filter when synthesising results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The search was applied to twelve electronic databases and citation tracking.

    “Experimental and cohort studies comparing the physical and mental health outcomes and mortality of a volunteering group to a non-volunteering group were identified from twelve electronic databases (Cochrane Library, Medline, Embase, PsychINFO, CINAHL, ERIC, HMIC, SSCI, ASSIA, Social Care Online, Social Policy and Practice) and citation tracking in January 2013.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale was used to assess quality of non-RCTs and cohort studies.

    “The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for cohort studies [20] was used to assess the quality of non-RCTs and cohort studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Wells GA, Shea B, O’Connell D, Peterson J, Welch V, Losos M, Tugwell P: The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomised studies in meta-analyses. 2012, http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.asp,

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Although interpreting evidence of effectiveness from longitudinal analysis of cohort studies may be problematic, they were included due to limited evidence from experimental studies.

    “Although interpreting evidence of effectiveness from longitudinal analysis of cohort studies may be problematic, they were included due to the limited evidence from experimental studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Health outcomes could be self-reported or extracted from routine records; no quality filtering was applied although the validity of each measure was noted.

    “Health outcomes which included mortality, and physical or mental health measures could be self-reported or extracted from routine records; no quality filtering was applied although the validity of each measure was noted.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The prevalence of volunteering is generally higher in the USA compared with European cohorts.

    “Reassuringly, the estimates of the prevalence of volunteering from observational studies is consistent with other sources [3,5], which found the prevalence of volunteering is generally higher in the USA compared with European cohorts, and that older people may be less likely to volunteer than their younger counterparts [64].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3] Bureau of Labor Statistics - US Department of Labor: Volunteering in the United States - 2011. 2012, USA: Department of Labor

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] Mathou C: Volunteering in the European Union - final report. Educational, Audiovisual & Culture Executive Agency - Directorate General Education and Culture. 2010, London, UK: GHK

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    People tend to volunteer for altruistic reasons.

    “Although people tend to volunteer for altruistic reasons [9], if reciprocity is not experienced, then the positive impact of volunteering on quality of life is negated [56,63].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Konrath S, Fuhrel-Forbis A, Lou A, Brown S: Motives for volunteering are associated with mortality risk in older adults. Health Psychol. 2012, 31: 87-96. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Older people may be less likely to volunteer than their younger counterparts.

    “Reassuringly, the estimates of the prevalence of volunteering from observational studies is consistent with other sources [3,5], which found the prevalence of volunteering is generally higher in the USA compared with European cohorts, and that older people may be less likely to volunteer than their younger counterparts [64].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] Department for Communities and Local Government: Citizenship survey: 2009–10 (April 2009 - March 2010), England. 2010, London, UK: UK Government

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Retired people who engaged in either paid work or volunteering experienced greater levels of wellbeing compared to those retirees who engaged in caring.

    “The importance of reciprocity was highlighted in the cross sectional analysis of the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA); retired people who engaged in either paid work or volunteering experienced greater levels of wellbeing compared to those retirees who engaged in caring [8].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] McMunn A, Nazroo J, Wahrendorf M, Breeze E, Zaninotto P: Participation in socially-productive activities, reciprocity and wellbeing in later life: baseline results in England. Ageing Soc. 2009, 29: 765-782. 10.1017/S0144686X08008350. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The State of the World's Volunteerism Report 2011, the Policy Agenda for Volunteering in Europe (PAVE), the CNCS Strategic Plan 2011-2015 and the UK government policy advocate the uptake of volunteering as a method of improving civic engagement, with the added potential of improving participants' health and wellbeing.

    “The State of the World’s Volunteerism Report 2011 [14], the Policy Agenda for Volunteering in Europe (PAVE) [13], the CNCS Strategic Plan 2011–2015 [7] and the UK government policy [15] advocate the uptake of volunteering as a method of improving civic engagement, with the added potential of improving participants’ health and wellbeing [16].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [14] United Nations Volunteers: State of the world’s volunteerism report 2011. Universal values for global well-being. 2011, Bonn, Germany: United Nations Volunteers source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [13] European Year of Voluteering: Policy Agenda for Volunteering in Europe (PAVE). 2011, Brussels, Belgium: EYV 2011 Alliance Secretariat

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [7] Corporation for National and Community Service: The Corporation for National and Community Service Strategic Plan 2011–2015. 2011, http://www.nationalservice.gov/sites/default/files/documents/11_0203_cncs_strategic_plan.pdf,

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Taken together, this review suggests that bio-social and cultural factors may influence both a willingness to engage in volunteering, as well as the benefits that might accrue.

    “Taken together, this review suggests that bio-social and cultural factors may influence both a willingness to engage in volunteering, as well as the benefits that might accrue.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    A hierarchy of evidence approach was applied; only experimental and cohort studies were included.

    “A hierarchy of evidence approach [17] was applied; only experimental (randomised and non-randomised controlled trials) and cohort studies were included.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Centre for Reviews and Dissemination: Systematic reviews. CRD’s guidance for undertaking reviews in health care. 2009, UK: Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, Univeristy of York

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    People reporting stronger social relationships have a reduced risk of mortality.

    “Since people reporting stronger social relationships have a reduced risk of mortality [68], the social aspects of volunteering may contribute to the observed survival differences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [68] Holt-Lunstad J, Smith TB, Layton JB: Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. PLoS Med. 2010, 7: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Two recent systematic reviews reported narrative evidence of potential health benefits from volunteering, but findings were restricted to older adults and evidence from only one trial.

    “Two recent systematic reviews reported narrative evidence of the potential health benefits from volunteering, but findings were restricted to older adults and evidence from only one trial [11,12].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [11] von Bonsdorff MB, Rantanen T: Benefits of formal voluntary work among older people. A review. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2011, 23: 162-169. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [12] Cattan M, Hogg E, Hardill I: Improving quality of life in ageing populations: what can volunteering do?. Maturitas. 2011, 70: 328-332. 10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.08.010. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The new Public Health Framework for England (2013-16) includes self-reported wellbeing and improving health-related quality of life for older people as indicators.

    “Alongside more traditional health promotion goals, such as reducing physical inactivity and excess weight in adults, the new Public Health Framework for England (2013–16) [69] includes self-reported wellbeing and improving health-related quality of life for older people as indicators.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Department of Health: Improving outcomes and supporting transparency. Part 1: a public health outcomes framework for England, 2013–2016. 2012, London, UK: Department of Health

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The relevance of the current findings to a nation where health inequalities and volunteering are less prevalent may be questionable.

    “The relevance of the current findings on a nation where health inequalities and volunteering are less prevalent may be questionable.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    While meta-analysis of survival data was undertaken, analysis of the remaining physical and mental health outcomes was restricted to vote counting due to heterogeneous trial interventions and study methods of both trial and observational studies.

    “While meta-analysis of survival data was undertaken, analysis of the remaining physical and mental health outcomes was restricted to vote counting [23] due to heterogeneous trial interventions and study methods of both trial and observational studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Bushman BJ: Vote-counting procedures in meta-analysis. The Handbook of Research Synthesis. Edited by: Cooper H, Hedges LV. 1984, New York, USA: Russell Sage, 193-213.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Many uncertainties remain that preclude clear recommendations for practice.

    “Many uncertainties remain that preclude clear recommendations for practice.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The emerging science of evaluating the impact of complex health behavioural change is giving new insights into intervention mapping and development.

    “The emerging science of evaluating the impact of complex health behavioural change is giving new insights into intervention mapping and development [70].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Bartholomew LK, Parcel GS, Kok G, Gottlieb NH, Fernandez ME: Planning health promotion programs: an intervention mapping approach. 2011, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 3

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    'Volunteering' (as assessed in cohort studies) is rarely described and heterogeneous in nature.

    “However, ‘volunteering’ (as assessed in cohort studies) is rarely described and heterogeneous in nature suggesting that future evaluations must seek to better describe the intervention ‘tested’.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    People who choose to volunteer may experience some benefits in terms of physical and mental health.

    “While the underlying causal mechanisms cannot be explained due to the potential for reverse causation and selection bias, synthesis of observational data suggests that people who choose to volunteer are at a lower risk of mortality, and may experience some benefits in terms of physical and mental health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    By adopting this approach, it may be more feasible over the long-term, to robustly design and adequately power, pragmatic RCTs.

    “By adopting this approach, it may be more feasible over the long-term, to robustly design and adequately power, pragmatic RCTs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
47 of 47

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The adjusted estimates from the included cohort studies adequately control for important potential socio-demographic and health-related confounders.

    “After adjusting for important potential socio-demographic and health-related confounders, volunteers had a significantly lower risk of mortality (risk ratio: 0.78; 95% CI: 0.66, 0.90; I2 test: p = 0.65) compared to non-volunteers”
1 of 1

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Volunteering is associated with beneficial mental, social, and physical health outcomes, including higher wellbeing, lower distress, greater social connectedness, better functional health, and, in some longitudinal studies, lower mortality risk.

    “A growing body of research indicates that volunteering is associated with beneficial mental, social, and physical health outcomes, including higher wellbeing, lower distress, greater social connectedness, better functional health, and, in some longitudinal studies, lower mortality risk (21–24).”

    From Volunteerism as a multidimensional form of human prosocial engagement (2026) · cites this paper as [23]

    The Results report improved wellbeing in several cohorts, and the Discussion reports a 22% lower mortality risk among volunteers in a meta-analysis of observational studies. The Background reports earlier evidence of improved social support and interaction and reduced psychological distress. However, the Results describe evidence for better physical functional ability as inconclusive, so that part of the claim overstates the review's findings. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Much of the research on kindness and well-being has been correlational-showing, for example, that people who spend more money on others are happier, or people who volunteer to help others are healthier.

    “However, much of this research has been correlationalshowing, for example, that people who spend more money on others are happier (Aknin, Barrington-Leigh, et al., 2013), or people who volunteer to help others are healthier (Jenkinson et al., 2013).”

    From Happy to help? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of performing acts of kindness on the well-being of the actor (2018) · cites this paper as Jenkinson et al., 2013

  • Environmental factors such as fewer calories, good sleep, less stress, good relationships, no smoking, and low alcohol drinking can delay aging.

    “It was shown that less calories [469], good sleep [470], less stress [471], good relationships [472], no smoke and low alcohol drinking are environmental factors capable of delaying aging, while genetic factors play a role for in 25% to 30% of life expectancy [473].”

    From The Role of Antioxidants in the Interplay between Oxidative Stress and Senescence (2022) · cites this paper as [472]

  • The cost of volunteering cannot be reduced to time investment alone; it emerges through interaction of emotional demands, intensity, subjective meaning, and available coping resources, and issues in a psychological consequence that organizational support and perceived recognition appear to buffer.

    “The cost of volunteering (D2) cannot be reduced to time investment alone; it emerges through the interaction of emotional demands, intensity, subjective meaning, and available coping resources, and it issues in a psychological consequence (D7) that organizational support and perceived recognition appear to buffer (21, 23, 33).”

    From Volunteerism as a multidimensional form of human prosocial engagement (2026) · cites this paper as [23]

  • Evidence for a precise optimal level of volunteering engagement remains inconsistent.

    “Evidence for a precise optimal level remains inconsistent, and this inconsistency is itself a finding the framework must accommodate rather than resolve by assertion (23).”

    From Volunteerism as a multidimensional form of human prosocial engagement (2026) · cites this paper as [23]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Five intergenerational trials are attributed to citations for four RCTs

    Minor

    The discussion calls the studies in [30,35,37,54,58,62] five trials, whereas the results identify those same citations as four RCTs. The fifth intergenerational study identified there is the non-RCT [27], which the discussion does not cite.

  • Study [29] is called an RCT after being classified as a non-RCT

    Minor

    The paper places [29] among its non-RCTs, but later calls it an RCT when discussing cognitive function.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 75 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. United Nations Volunteers Programme: Preparatory Committee for the Special Session of the General Assembly on the implementation of the outcome of the world summit for social development and further initiatives. Volunteering and social development. A/AC.253/16/Add.7. 2000, United Nations
  2. Mathou C: Volunteering in the European Union - final report. Educational, Audiovisual & Culture Executive Agency - Directorate General Education and Culture. 2010, London, UK: GHK
  3. European Year of Voluteering: Policy Agenda for Volunteering in Europe (PAVE). 2011, Brussels, Belgium: EYV 2011 Alliance Secretariat
  4. Department for Communities and Local Government: Citizenship survey: 2009–10 (April 2009 - March 2010), England. 2010, London, UK: UK Government
  5. Department of Health: Improving outcomes and supporting transparency. Part 1: a public health outcomes framework for England, 2013–2016. 2012, London, UK: Department of Health

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Jenkinson, C. E., Dickens, A. P., Jones, K., Thompson-Coon, J., Taylor, R. S., Rogers, M., Bambra, C. L., Lang, I., & Richards, S. H.
Affiliations
  • University of Exeter (GB)
  • University of Birmingham (GB)
  • Durham University (GB)
Corresponding author
Richards, Suzanne H
ORCID
Venue
BMC Public Health
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2013-08-23
Volume
13
Issue
1
Pages
773-773
ISSN
1471-2458 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1186/1471-2458-13-773
PMC
PMC3766013
OpenAlex
W2039460587
Semantic Scholar
0b7ad1238f57b6d75f54dc36fd159f5234362831
Cited by
730
References
75
Citations by year
2026: 49 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 53 · 2021: 104 · 2020: 86 · 2019: 66 · 2018: 55 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 48 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 1
FWCI
19.81
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • BMC Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
  • Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University) (acceptedVersion)
  • ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam) (acceptedVersion)
  • University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion)
Funders
National Institute for Health and Care Research
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Nonprofit Sector and Volunteering
  • Social Sciences › Demography › Tourism, Volunteerism, and Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Keywords
volunteering, public health interventions, volunteer health, mortality, mental health, depression, life satisfaction, well-being, physical health, social capital, health disparities
MeSH terms
Humans, Mental Health, Public Health, Volunteers, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Social Capital

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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