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Cited by 0Nonprofit Sector and VolunteeringTourism, Volunteerism, and DevelopmentPsychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction

Volunteerism as a multidimensional form of human prosocial engagement

Open access
Sarid, Orly·2026·Frontiers in Public Health
DOI 10.3389/fpubh.2026.1908108PMC PMC13529753
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Abstract

Volunteerism is widely recognized as an important contributor to public health, community resilience, and social cohesion, yet its conceptualization remains fragmented across disciplines. Existing research has advanced understanding of volunteer motivations, identity processes, wellbeing outcomes, and organizational influences, but these perspectives are typically examined separately rather than integrated within a common framework. This paper proposes a multidimensional framework that conceptualizes volunteerism as a form of prosocial behaviors defined by seven dimensions: motivational basis (D1), personal cost (D2), social embeddedness (D3), identity integration (D4), moral commitment (D5), meaning (D6), and psychological consequence (D7). The dimensions are conceptualized as distinct but correlated, with forms of helping characterized by their profiles across all seven. The framework distinguishes volunteerism from altruism by treating volunteerism as a behavioral form of helping that may arise from diverse motivations, whereas altruism is conceptualized as one possible motivational orientation. Drawing on research from public health, psychology, sociology, and moral cognition, the paper situates informal helping, structured volunteering, and high-cost helping within a single multidimensional space. Attention is given to the conditions under which volunteering is associated with wellbeing, resilience, social connectedness, and purpose, as well as to circumstances in which emotionally demanding or poorly supported roles may contribute to compassion fatigue, emotional exhaustion, and burnout. The framework advances a prospectively testable, configural account of high-cost helping, proposing that such acts are characterized by the joint elevation of personal cost, moral commitment, identity integration, and meaning, together with low anticipated reward. Five propositions and a corresponding measurement program are specified to guide empirical evaluation. By integrating motivations, costs, meanings, contexts, and consequences within a single model, the framework provides a foundation for future research and informs public-health and organizational strategies aimed at supporting both community benefit and volunteer wellbeing.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper proposes a seven-dimensional framework conceptualizing volunteerism as multidimensional prosocial engagement: motivational basis (D1), personal cost (D2), social embeddedness (D3), identity integration (D4), moral commitment (D5), meaning (D6), and psychological consequence (D7). It offers five falsifiable propositions and a measurement program, arguing that high-cost helping is a configural profile of high D2, D4, D5, and D6 together with low anticipated reward.

Key findings

  • Volunteerism is defined by a profile across seven distinct but correlated dimensions, not by a single score; informal helping, structured volunteering, and high-cost helping are regions within one continuous space rather than discrete categories.
  • High-cost helping is predicted to show elevated personal cost (D2), moral commitment (D5), identity integration (D4), and meaning (D6), with low anticipated reward within D1; D7 may range from growth to moral injury, burnout, compassion fatigue, or emotional exhaustion depending on support.
  • Five propositions are specified: (1) seven distinct but correlated latent factors; (2) nonlinear dose–response between engagement intensity and D7; (3) configural account of high-cost helping; (4) organizational support buffering the D2–D7 association; and (5) a D1 × D6 interaction predicting favorable D7.
  • The measurement program proposes EFA then CFA, separate samples of approximately 300 to 500 participants each, at least 10 participants per proposed item, preregistered cost indices, longitudinal or repeated-measures designs, multilevel modeling, and measurement invariance testing.

Methods

  • Conceptual synthesis, not an exhaustive systematic review; the seven dimensions were derived from recurrent explanatory domains in volunteerism and prosocial-behavior literatures.
  • No empirical data are collected or analyzed; the paper specifies a future validation program using EFA/CFA, longitudinal and multilevel designs, qualitative narrative interviews, and cautiously used computational or ecological indicators as hypothesis-generating data.

Limitations

  • Stated: the framework is theoretical and requires empirical validation; the seven dimensions have not yet been operationalized within a single measurement model, and D4, D5, and D6 may show stronger overlap than anticipated, requiring revision.
  • Stated: boundaries among informal helping, structured volunteering, and high-cost helping are difficult to define precisely; high-cost helping is relatively rare and often studied retrospectively, with risks of selection, survivorship, social desirability, and narrative reconstruction.
  • Evident from the text: the propositions and Table 3 public-health mappings are theoretically derived and not yet empirically evaluated; benefit claims are largely observational and vulnerable to healthy-volunteer selection and reverse causation.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fpubh.2026.1908108

Cites

51 of 51 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

4 of 58 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Interviews with rescuers provide strong evidence that helping can be non-deliberative: rescuers commonly reported no experience of choice, describing a sense of shared humanity that rendered action self-evident rather than the product of cost-benefit deliberation.

    “interviews with rescuers provide particularly strong evidence for this non-deliberative quality: rescuers commonly reported no experience of choice, describing a sense of shared humanity that rendered action self-evident rather than the product of cost-benefit”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Monroe, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationreasoning

    The evidence base for volunteering-health associations is largely observational and vulnerable to healthy-volunteer selection and reverse causation.

    “Because the evidence base is largely observational, it is vulnerable to healthy-volunteer selection and reverse causation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    The sustaining force of high-cost engagement may depend less on initial motives and more on moral commitment, identity, and meaning.

    “Rather, it means that the sustaining force of the engagement may depend less on initial motives and more on moral commitment, identity, and meaning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    Moral injury provides a complementary lens for high-D5 contexts because volunteers may experience distress when they witness, participate in, or are unable to prevent events that violate deeply held moral commitments.

    “Moral injury provides a complementary lens for high-D5 contexts, because volunteers may experience distress when they witness, participate in, or are unable to prevent events that violate deeply held moral commitments (30).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Litz, 2009, Moral injury and moral repair in war veterans: a preliminary model and intervention strategy, Clin Psychol Rev source
  • Premisecitation

    Volunteer engagement is shaped simultaneously by motives, barriers, perceived effects, social perceptions, organizational conditions, and broader societal context.

    “Recent studies by Aslan and Tuncay strengthen this point by showing that volunteer engagement is shaped simultaneously by motives, barriers, perceived effects, social perceptions, organizational conditions, and broader societal context, including in child-welfare volunteering and active-volunteer samples (13–15).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [13] Aslan, 2023, Advancing and sustaining volunteerism: investigating the multifaceted challenges and obstacles to volunteer engagement, Anal Soc Issues Public Policy source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites [14] Aslan, 2023, Examining the factors affecting the voluntary participation and effects of volunteering in the child welfare in Türkiye, J Soc Serv Res source
    • cites [15] Aslan, 2024, Assessing the motives of active volunteers: a Turkish perspective, Voluntas source
  • May combine two claims. 47
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 54

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Volunteering is associated with beneficial mental, social, and physical health outcomes, including higher wellbeing, lower distress, greater social connectedness, better functional health, and, in some longitudinal studies, lower mortality risk.

    “A growing body of research indicates that volunteering is associated with beneficial mental, social, and physical health outcomes, including higher wellbeing, lower distress, greater social connectedness, better functional health, and, in some longitudinal studies, lower mortality risk (21–24).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [21] Anderson, 2014, The benefits associated with volunteering among seniors: a critical review and recommendations for future research, Psychol Bull source
    • cites [22] Filges, 2020, Volunteering and health: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Campbell Syst Rev source

      The Plain Language Summary reports lower mortality risk and possible benefits for functional health and depression among volunteers aged 65 or over. The Results report a small reduction in depression, but psychological well-being and loneliness were each reported by only one study; the review does not establish greater social connectedness or lower distress as distinct outcomes. Its conclusions also caution that evidence for outcomes other than mortality is insufficient. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [23] Jenkinson, 2013, Is volunteering a public health intervention? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the health and survival of volunteers, BMC Public Health source

      The Results report improved wellbeing in several cohorts, and the Discussion reports a 22% lower mortality risk among volunteers in a meta-analysis of observational studies. The Background reports earlier evidence of improved social support and interaction and reduced psychological distress. However, the Results describe evidence for better physical functional ability as inconclusive, so that part of the claim overstates the review's findings. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [24] Okun, 2013, Volunteering by older adults and risk of mortality: a meta-analysis, Psychol Aging source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pfattheicher et al. supply the outcome/motive/norm taxonomy that this paper uses as an analytic instrument, but theirs is a typology of definitions rather than a measurement space.

    “Pfattheicher et al. (12) supply the outcome/motive/norm taxonomy that this paper uses as an analytic instrument, but theirs is a typology of definitions rather than a measurement space.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Pfattheicher, 2022, Prosocial behavior and altruism: a review of concepts and definitions, Curr Opin Psychol source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Costly-signaling accounts interpret helping as the advertisement of desirable qualities.

    “costly-signaling accounts interpret helping as the advertisement of desirable qualities (41)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] Nowak, 2005, Evolution of indirect reciprocity, Nature source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The seven dimensions are distinct but correlated, and forms of helping are characterized by their profiles across all seven.

    “The dimensions are conceptualized as distinct but correlated, with forms of helping characterized by their profiles across all seven.”
    • Also stated in: § How the dimensions combine · hedged
      “The seven dimensions are intended to be conceptually distinct but empirically correlated, and the set is proposed as a working basis for measurement rather than as an exhaustive partition of all prosocial variation; it is, in that sense, a defined but revisable set rather than a closed taxonomy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The configural commitment makes the account of high-cost helping falsifiable: a specific profile is predicted, and a different observed profile would disconfirm it.

    “This configural commitment is what makes the account of high cost helping in Section 4 falsifiable: a specific profile is predicted there, shown in the high-cost column of Table 1, and a different observed profile would disconfirm it.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    An act is defined by its profile, the joint pattern of values across D1 to D7, not by a single summary score and not by any one dimension.

    “An act is defined by its profile, the joint pattern of values across D1 to D7, not by a single summary score and not by any one dimension.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Comparable levels of personal cost may be associated with either growth and fulfillment or stress and depletion, depending on the availability of personal, social, and organizational resources.

    “Comparable levels of personal cost may be associated with either growth and fulfillment or stress and depletion, depending on the availability of personal, social, and organizational resources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Volunteering or helping others may contribute to personal growth, a stronger sense of connectedness, and a clearer sense of purpose.
    • Rests on an assumption: The same kind of engagement may lead to stress, compassion fatigue, emotional exhaustion, or burnout.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The framework distinguishes volunteerism from altruism by treating volunteerism as a behavioral form of helping that may arise from diverse motivations, whereas altruism is conceptualized as one possible motivational orientation.

    “The framework distinguishes volunteerism from altruism by treating volunteerism as a behavioral form of helping that may arise from diverse motivations, whereas altruism is conceptualized as one possible motivational orientation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Volunteerism's conceptualization remains fragmented across disciplines, with motivations, identity processes, wellbeing outcomes, and organizational influences typically examined separately rather than integrated within a common framework.

    “Volunteerism is widely recognized as an important contributor to public health, community resilience, and social cohesion, yet its conceptualization remains fragmented across disciplines.”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “Existing research has advanced understanding of volunteer motivations, identity processes, wellbeing outcomes, and organizational influences, but these perspectives are typically examined separately rather than integrated within a common framework.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Identity theory distinguishes the salience of a volunteer role within a person's role hierarchy from the broader moral or existential meaning of the activity.

    “Identity theory further clarifies D4 by distinguishing the salience of a volunteer role within a person's role hierarchy from the broader moral or existential meaning of the activity (18).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] Stryker, 2000, The past, present, and future of an identity theory, Soc Psychol Q source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Volunteering is best understood as a psychosocial process that may involve both meaningful benefits and significant personal costs.

    “Volunteering is best understood as a psychosocial process that may involve both meaningful benefits and significant personal costs (D2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Volunteers may invest substantial emotional energy, time, physical effort, and personal resources, while also experiencing role strain, stress, and exposure to emotionally challenging situations.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Everyday informal helping may involve relatively low personal cost, limited role identity, and weaker integration into the self.

    “Everyday informal helping may involve relatively low personal cost, limited role identity, and weaker integration into the self.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Organizational support is treated mainly as a moderator of the D2-D7 relationship.

    “For example, culture, age, gender, socioeconomic resources, and prior experience are expected to shape where a person is located in the space; role duration, intensity, and exposure level are indicators of D2 and D3; organizational support is treated mainly as a moderator of the D2–D7 relationship; and recipient type or cause area is a contextual specification rather than a separate axis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The volunteer stages and transitions model describes movement from nominee and newcomer positions through emotional involvement and established volunteering to retirement from the role.

    “The volunteer stages and transitions model, for example, describes movement from nominee and newcomer positions through emotional involvement and established volunteering to retirement from the role (16).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Haski-Leventhal, 2008, The volunteer stages and transitions model: organizational socialization of volunteers, Hum Relat source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The link between D2 and D7 can be framed through conservation of resources theory: high personal cost is consequential when it threatens or depletes valued emotional, social, material, or physical resources, whereas support and meaning may protect or rebuild those resources.

    “The link between D2 and D7 can also be framed through conservation of resources theory: high personal cost is consequential when it threatens or depletes valued emotional, social, material, or physical resources, whereas support and meaning may protect or rebuild those resources (29).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Hobfoll, 1989, Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress, Am Psychol source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Informal helping occupies the low-D3 boundary region of the space, where the act is typically carried out outside formal roles, organizations, or coordinated civic initiatives; formal volunteering occupies the high-D3 region because it is connected to a role, organization, collective project, or coordinated civic initiative.

    “Informal helping occupies the low-D3 boundary region of the space, where the act is typically carried out outside formal roles, organizations, or coordinated civic initiatives. Formal volunteering occupies the high-D3 region because it is connected to a role, organization, collective project, or coordinated civic initiative.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The framework would be disconfirmed if genuine high-cost helpers routinely reported substantial anticipated reward, if they scored no higher on moral commitment and identity integration than matched ordinary volunteers once cost was equated, or if predicted distinctions between dimensions failed to appear.

    “It would be disconfirmed if genuine high-cost helpers routinely reported substantial anticipated reward, if they scored no higher on moral commitment and identity integration than matched ordinary volunteers once cost was equated, or if predicted distinctions between dimensions failed to appear.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The boundary of volunteerism is narrower than the boundary of prosocial behavior; volunteerism refers to a specific subset of prosocial engagement: action that is voluntary, directed beyond immediate private or familial obligation, not directly materially compensated, and socially meaningful or role-like in form.

    “The boundary of volunteerism is also narrower than the boundary of prosocial behavior. Prosocial engagement is the broader domain. Volunteerism refers to a specific subset of prosocial engagement: action that is voluntary, directed beyond immediate private or familial obligation, not directly materially compensated, and socially meaningful or role-like in form.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Culture, age, gender, socioeconomic resources, and prior experience are expected to shape where a person is located in the seven-dimensional space.

    “For example, culture, age, gender, socioeconomic resources, and prior experience are expected to shape where a person is located in the space; role duration, intensity, and exposure level are indicators of D2 and D3; organizational support is treated mainly as a moderator of the D2–D7 relationship; and recipient type or cause area is a contextual specification rather than a separate axis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Including D7 in the framework does not mean that psychological consequence is part of the minimal definition of volunteering; an act does not have to produce a particular psychological outcome in order to count as volunteering.

    “Including D7 in the framework does not mean that psychological consequence is part of the minimal definition of volunteering. In other words, an act does not have to produce a particular psychological outcome in order to count as volunteering.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The seven dimensions were developed through conceptual synthesis, rather than as the product of an exhaustive systematic review.

    “The seven dimensions were developed through conceptual synthesis, rather than as the product of an exhaustive systematic review.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    As personal cost increases, D5 (Moral Commitment), D4 (Identity Integration), and D6 (Meaning) become increasingly central to understanding the engagement, while D1 (Motivational Basis) becomes less central in relative salience.

    “As personal cost increases, D5, Moral Commitment, D4, Identity Integration, and D6, Meaning, become increasingly central to understanding the engagement. D1, Motivational Basis, becomes less central in relative salience.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Prosocial engagement is conceptualized as a position within a seven-dimensional space.

    “Prosocial engagement is conceptualized as a position within a seven-dimensional space.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Activism, caregiving, civic participation, and informal helping may overlap with volunteerism, but they are not automatically identical to it; they fall within the framework only when they meet the relevant criteria.

    “For this reason, activism, caregiving, civic participation, and informal helping may overlap with volunteerism, but they are not automatically identical to it. They fall within the framework only when they meet the relevant criteria.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    More recent studies report associations between volunteering and lower depression and loneliness, particularly among older adults, alongside stronger perceived purpose and social integration.

    “More recent studies report associations with lower levels of depression and loneliness, particularly among older adults, alongside stronger perceived purpose and social integration (25, 26).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [25] Burr, 2021, Volunteering and psychological well-being in later life: evidence from longitudinal data, Soc Sci Med source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites [26] Guiney, 2018, Volunteering in the community: potential benefits for cognitive aging, J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The functional approach specifies why people volunteer (a theory of D1) but does not represent cost, consequence, or the configuration of high-cost acts.

    “The functional approach (5) specifies why people volunteer (a theory of D1) but does not represent cost, consequence, or the configuration of high-cost acts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] Clary, 1998, Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: a functional approach, J Pers Soc Psychol source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The effects of volunteering appear to depend not only on extent of involvement but also on quality of experience, availability of support and coping resources, and broader social and organizational context.

    “The effects of volunteering appear to depend not only on the extent of involvement but also on the quality of the experience, the availability of support and coping resources, and the broader social and organizational context (D3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Identity fusion theory explains extreme self-sacrifice through a visceral sense of oneness with a group.

    “Identity fusion theory explains extreme self-sacrifice through a visceral sense of oneness with a group (39, 40)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [39] Swann, 2012, When group membership gets personal: a theory of identity fusion, Psychol Rev source
    • cites [40] Whitehouse, 2018, Dying for the group: towards a general theory of extreme self-sacrifice, Behav Brain Sci source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In the present framework, volunteer-career processes are located primarily in D4, while their organizational conditions are captured by D3 and their motivational changes by D1.

    “In the present framework, these volunteer-career processes are located primarily in D4, while their organizational conditions are captured by D3 and their motivational changes by D1.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    D4 can be measured as role identity in ordinary volunteering and as stronger social or fused identity in high-cost helping.

    “In this sense, D4 can be measured as role identity in ordinary volunteering and as stronger social or fused identity in high-cost helping.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The framework should be understood as a model of volunteerism within the broader prosocial domain, rather than as a replacement for theories of helping behavior in general.

    “The framework should therefore be understood as a model of volunteerism within the broader prosocial domain, rather than as a replacement for theories of helping behavior in general.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Heroism science distinguishes heroic action from ordinary altruism by emphasizing voluntary action under conditions of risk or sacrifice on behalf of others or a moral cause.

    “Heroism science is relevant here because it distinguishes heroic action from ordinary altruism by emphasizing voluntary action under conditions of risk or sacrifice on behalf of others or a moral cause (38).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] Franco, 2011, Heroism: a conceptual analysis and differentiation between heroic action and altruism, Rev Gen Psychol source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Role duration, intensity, and exposure level are indicators of D2 and D3.

    “For example, culture, age, gender, socioeconomic resources, and prior experience are expected to shape where a person is located in the space; role duration, intensity, and exposure level are indicators of D2 and D3; organizational support is treated mainly as a moderator of the D2–D7 relationship; and recipient type or cause area is a contextual specification rather than a separate axis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Role identity theory addresses D4 for ordinary role-based volunteering but not the social-identity, self-group mechanisms that the self-sacrifice literature requires.

    “Role identity theory (8) addresses D4 for ordinary role-based volunteering but not the social-identity, self-group mechanisms that the self-sacrifice literature requires.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Callero, 1987, Helping behavior as role behavior: disclosing social structure and history in the analysis of prosocial action, Soc Psychol Q source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The seven dimensions are intended to be conceptually distinct but empirically correlated, and the set is proposed as a working basis for measurement rather than as an exhaustive partition of all prosocial variation.

    “The seven dimensions are intended to be conceptually distinct but empirically correlated, and the set is proposed as a working basis for measurement rather than as an exhaustive partition of all prosocial variation; it is, in that sense, a defined but revisable set rather than a closed taxonomy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    D4 includes both role identity at a given point in time and the longer developmental trajectory through which volunteering may become a life pathway.

    “This distinction clarifies that D4 includes both role identity at a given point in time and the longer developmental trajectory through which volunteering may become a life pathway.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The cost of volunteering cannot be reduced to time investment alone; it emerges through interaction of emotional demands, intensity, subjective meaning, and available coping resources, and issues in a psychological consequence that organizational support and perceived recognition appear to buffer.

    “The cost of volunteering (D2) cannot be reduced to time investment alone; it emerges through the interaction of emotional demands, intensity, subjective meaning, and available coping resources, and it issues in a psychological consequence (D7) that organizational support and perceived recognition appear to buffer (21, 23, 33).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [21] Anderson, 2014, The benefits associated with volunteering among seniors: a critical review and recommendations for future research, Psychol Bull source
    • cites [23] Jenkinson, 2013, Is volunteering a public health intervention? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the health and survival of volunteers, BMC Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [33] Kragt, 2019, Volunteering research in Australia: a narrative review, Aust J Psychol source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Two individuals may experience similar personal costs, yet the psychological consequences may differ greatly depending on the support they receive, the meaning they attach to their engagement, and the personal or social resources available to them.

    “Two individuals may experience similar personal costs, yet the psychological consequences may differ greatly depending on the support they receive, the meaning they attach to their engagement, and the personal or social resources available to them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Volunteering or helping others may contribute to personal growth, a stronger sense of connectedness, and a clearer sense of purpose.
    • Rests on an assumption: The same kind of engagement may lead to stress, compassion fatigue, emotional exhaustion, or burnout.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Existing theories primarily explain why people volunteer, how participation is sustained, or how volunteer identities develop, but offer limited means of describing volunteerism itself as a multidimensional behavioral phenomenon or systematically comparing different forms of volunteer engagement.

    “Existing theories have generated important insights into why people volunteer, how volunteer identities develop, and what sustains participation over time. However, they offer limited means of describing volunteerism itself as a multidimensional behavioral phenomenon or systematically comparing different forms of volunteer engagement within a common conceptual structure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Penner's interactionist model and the multilevel perspective of Penner et al. integrate dispositional and organizational influences across levels, but they treat outcomes as downstream rather than as a constitutive dimension and do not generate a configural prediction for extreme helping.

    “Penner's interactionist model (3) and the multilevel perspective of Penner et al. (11) integrate dispositional and organizational influences across levels, but they treat outcomes as downstream rather than as a constitutive dimension and do not generate a configural prediction for extreme helping.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3] Penner, 2002, Dispositional and organizational influences on sustained volunteerism: an interactionist perspective, J Soc Issues source
    • cites [11] Penner, 2005, Prosocial behavior: multilevel perspectives, Annu Rev Psychol source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Cost concerns what is endured, whereas consequences concern how bearing that cost turns out; two episodes may involve identical costs but very different psychological outcomes, demonstrating that D2 and D7 capture distinct dimensions of engagement.

    “Cost concerns what is endured, whereas consequences concern how bearing that cost turns out. Consequently, two episodes may involve identical costs but very different psychological outcomes, demonstrating that D2 and D7 capture distinct dimensions of engagement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Self-Determination Theory explains how autonomous motivation is sustained through autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which map onto aspects of D1, D3, and D6, but is silent on personal cost and on the moral-obligation pole of D5.

    “Self-Determination Theory (7) explains how autonomous motivation is sustained through autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which map onto aspects of D1, D3, and D6, but is silent on personal cost and on the moral-obligation pole of D5.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Ryan, 2000, Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions, Contemp Educ Psychol source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Two acts with identical total intensity may occupy very different regions of space, and it is the configuration, not the sum, that carries the framework's explanatory claims.

    “Two acts with identical total intensity may occupy very different regions of space, and it is the configuration, not the sum, that carries the framework's explanatory claims.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Highly embedded organizational roles may remain peripheral to identity, whereas deeply identity-central helping may occur outside formal roles or organizations.

    “The two dimensions are conceptually distinct: highly embedded organizational roles may remain peripheral to identity, whereas deeply identity-central helping may occur outside formal roles or organizations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Volunteerism can be conceptualized as a form of prosocial behavior defined by seven dimensions: motivational basis, personal cost, social embeddedness, identity integration, moral commitment, meaning, and psychological consequence.

    “This paper proposes a multidimensional framework that conceptualizes volunteerism as a form of prosocial behaviors defined by seven dimensions: motivational basis (D1), personal cost (D2), social embeddedness (D3), identity integration (D4), moral commitment (D5), meaning (D6), and psychological consequence (D7).”
    • Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
      “This paper develops a multidimensional framework of volunteerism that conceptualizes volunteerism as a seven-dimensional behavioral construct.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The framework distinguishes volunteer behavior from volunteer motivation, incorporates personal cost and psychological consequences as intrinsic dimensions of volunteer engagement rather than merely downstream outcomes, and provides an empirically testable structure for comparing diverse forms of volunteer activity, including high-cost helping.

    “Specifically, it distinguishes volunteer behavior from volunteer motivation, incorporates personal cost and psychological consequences as intrinsic dimensions of volunteer engagement rather than merely downstream outcomes, and provides an empirically testable structure for comparing diverse forms of volunteer activity, including high-cost helping.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    High-cost helping may involve substantial sacrifice, stronger moral obligation, deeper identity integration, and a more explicit sense of meaning.

    “By contrast, high-cost helping may involve substantial sacrifice, stronger moral obligation, deeper identity integration, and a more explicit sense of meaning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The framework identifies a minimal integrative set of dimensions needed to connect bodies of literature that are often examined separately, rather than claiming these are the only possible attributes of volunteer activity.

    “The framework therefore does not claim that these are the only possible attributes of volunteer activity. Rather, it identifies a minimal integrative set of dimensions needed to connect bodies of literature that are often examined separately.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Recipient type or cause area is a contextual specification rather than a separate axis.

    “For example, culture, age, gender, socioeconomic resources, and prior experience are expected to shape where a person is located in the space; role duration, intensity, and exposure level are indicators of D2 and D3; organizational support is treated mainly as a moderator of the D2–D7 relationship; and recipient type or cause area is a contextual specification rather than a separate axis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The framework adds a constitutive cost-and-consequence axis and a configural, falsifiable account of high-cost helping that the cited models do not jointly provide.

    “The framework adds a constitutive cost-and-consequence axis and a configural, falsifiable account of high-cost helping that the cited models, each strong on a subset of the dimensions, do not jointly provide.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The boundaries among informal helping, structured volunteering, and high-cost helping are best understood as regions of a continuum rather than as discrete categories.

    “They are best understood as regions of a continuum rather than as discrete categories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The boundaries among informal helping, structured volunteering, and high-cost helping are difficult to define with precision.

    “The boundaries among informal helping, structured volunteering, and high-cost helping are also difficult to define with precision.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Individuals may move across the regions of informal helping, structured volunteering, and high-cost helping over time, and the same activity may acquire different meanings depending on context, duration, perceived obligation, organizational embedding, and personal cost.

    “Individuals may move across these regions over time, and the same activity may acquire different meanings depending on context, duration, perceived obligation, organizational embedding, and personal cost.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A multidimensional framework can help identify differences in access and exposure and support more equitable role design, supervision, and protection.

    “A multidimensional framework can help identify these differences and support more equitable role design, supervision, and protection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Access to volunteering, and exposure to high-cost roles, are shaped by socioeconomic resources, time poverty, caregiving obligations, gendered and ethnicized expectations of care, age, disability, migration status, and proximity to crisis.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The seven dimensions have not yet been operationalized within a single measurement model.

    “The seven dimensions have not yet been operationalized within a single measurement model, although Section 7 specifies how such a validation program could proceed and what kinds of findings would challenge the proposed structure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Ordinary volunteering typically involves a balance between contribution and manageable burden, whereas high-cost helping is characterized by a marked asymmetry in which personal cost substantially exceeds direct benefit to the helper.

    “Whereas ordinary volunteering typically involves a balance between contribution and manageable burden, high-cost helping is characterized by a marked asymmetry in which personal cost (D2) substantially exceeds direct benefit to the helper.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Helping during war, disaster, or epidemic involves substantial cost, often with little realistic prospect of reciprocal benefit.

    “Helping during war, disaster, or epidemic involves substantial cost (D2), often with little realistic prospect of reciprocal benefit.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Schwartz's theory of basic human values specifies which value types load on moral commitment; benevolence and universalism are the value types the framework predicts at high D5.

    “Schwartz's theory of basic human values (47, 48) specifies which value types load on moral commitment. Benevolence, understood as concern for the welfare of close others or the in-group, and universalism, understood as concern extended to all people, are the value types the framework predicts at high D5.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [47] Schwartz, 1992, “Universals in the content and structure of values: theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries, Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 25 source
    • cites [48] Schwartz, 2012, Refining the theory of basic individual values, J Pers Soc Psychol source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Ordinary volunteering is embedded in ongoing social contexts that also provide the individual with psychological and social benefits, including wellbeing, connectedness, purpose, and belonging.

    “Ordinary volunteering is embedded in ongoing social contexts (D3) that also provide the individual with psychological and social benefits, including wellbeing, connectedness, purpose, and belonging.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The measurement program is feasible because the framework specifies a fixed dimensional structure.

    “The measurement program is feasible because the framework specifies a fixed dimensional structure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    When volunteer effort compensates for limitations in formal institutional responses, some responsibilities that would otherwise be carried by professional services may shift toward citizens and community networks.

    “Moreover, when volunteer effort compensates for limitations in formal institutional responses, some responsibilities that would otherwise be carried by professional services may shift toward citizens and community networks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Tailoring opportunities to volunteers' motivational profiles may enhance engagement and persistence.

    “Tailoring opportunities to volunteers' motivational profiles may enhance engagement and persistence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Vignette and factorial-survey designs cannot replace real-world observation, but they may help clarify how people evaluate cost, obligation, risk, recognition, organizational support, and moral commitment under controlled conditions.

    “Such designs cannot replace real-world observation, but they may help clarify how people evaluate cost, obligation, risk, recognition, organizational support, and moral commitment under controlled conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    D6 is conceptually distinct from the self-definition that anchors D4: an act can be self-defining without being experienced as meaningful in Frankl's sense, and it can be meaningful without being self-defining.

    “This formulation makes D6 conceptually distinct from the self-definition that anchors D4. An act can be self-defining without being experienced as meaningful in Frankl's sense, and it can be meaningful without being self-defining (37) phenomenology of rescuers supplies the central evidence that D5 can operate non-deliberatively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Monroe, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The framework is theoretical and requires empirical validation.

    “First, the framework is theoretical and requires empirical validation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Moral commitment is not reducible to identity: people may experience a strong moral obligation to help without defining themselves through helping, just as helping may be self-defining without being experienced as meaningful.

    “However, moral commitment is not reducible to identity. People may experience a strong moral obligation to help without defining themselves through helping, just as helping may be self-defining without being experienced as meaningful.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Geographic or administrative indicators may capture opportunity structures, exposure to crisis, institutional capacity, or reporting practices rather than individual motivation.

    “Geographic or administrative indicators may capture opportunity structures, exposure to crisis, institutional capacity, or reporting practices rather than individual motivation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    High participation in demanding roles may reflect structural necessity, social expectation, or unequal burden as well as freely chosen civic engagement.

    “Conversely, high participation in demanding roles may reflect structural necessity, social expectation, or unequal burden as well as freely chosen civic engagement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Access to volunteering, and exposure to high-cost roles, are shaped by socioeconomic resources, time poverty, caregiving obligations, gendered and ethnicized expectations of care, age, disability, migration status, and proximity to crisis.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The same high-D5 and high-D6 profile that supports sustained engagement may also increase vulnerability to excessive demands.

    “Safeguards are needed because the same high-D5 and high-D6 profile that supports sustained engagement may also increase vulnerability to excessive demands.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The distinction among outcome-based, motive-based, and norm-based conceptions of altruism emphasizes respectively the consequences of an action, the individual's intentions, and the social or moral norms that guide behavior.

    “This issue is reflected in the distinction among outcome-based, motive-based, and norm-based conceptions of altruism, which emphasize respectively the consequences of an action, the individual's intentions, and the social or moral norms that guide behavior (12).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Pfattheicher, 2022, Prosocial behavior and altruism: a review of concepts and definitions, Curr Opin Psychol source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Evolutionary theories emphasize kinship and reciprocity in helping.

    “evolutionary theories emphasize kinship and reciprocity (42, 43)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [42] Hamilton, 1964, The genetical evolution of social behaviour I, J Theor Biol source
    • cites [43] Trivers, 1971, The evolution of reciprocal altruism, Q Rev Biol source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Frankl's logotherapy and Park's meaning-making model anchor D6 specifically in the will to meaning and in the human capacity to find purpose despite, and even through, suffering.

    “Frankl's logotherapy and Park's meaning-making model (19, 20) anchor D6 specifically in the will to meaning and in the human capacity to find purpose despite, and even through, suffering.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [19] Frankl, 1963

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [20] Park, 2010, Making sense of the meaning literature: an integrative review of meaning making and its effects on adjustment to stressful life events, Psychol Bull source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Social-media activity may reflect visibility, expression propensity, platform access, media attention, or organizational communication more than actual helping behavior.

    “For example, social-media activity may reflect visibility, expression propensity, platform access, media attention, or organizational communication more than actual helping behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The same seven dimensions remain operative in high-cost helping, but their relative salience shifts: moral commitment, identity integration, and meaning become increasingly central, whereas anticipated personal benefit plays a diminished explanatory role.

    “The same seven dimensions remain operative, but their relative salience shifts: moral commitment (D5), identity integration (D4), and meaning (D6) become increasingly central, whereas anticipated personal benefit plays a diminished explanatory role.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Volunteering may strengthen social cohesion, collective resilience, and shared meaning during adversity.

    “At the societal level, volunteering may strengthen social cohesion, collective resilience, and shared meaning during adversity, consistent with the social-capital tradition linking civic participation to community resources (54).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] Putnam, 2000 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The framework uses role identity for ordinary role-based volunteering, and social identity, including its fusion variant, for high-cost self-sacrifice.

    “The framework therefore uses role identity for ordinary role-based volunteering, and social identity, including its fusion variant, for high-cost self-sacrifice.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The framework yields five falsifiable propositions, each paired with an empirical test.

    “The framework yields five falsifiable propositions; each paired with an empirical test.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A distinction emerges between ordinary volunteering and helping under acute threat: both may be motivated by concern for others and by values, but they differ in the configuration of cost, social embeddedness, and expected benefit.

    “A distinction therefore emerges between ordinary volunteering and helping under acute threat. Both may be motivated by concern for others and by values, but they differ in the configuration of cost, social embeddedness, and expected benefit.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Retrospective accounts, historical documentation, testimony, organizational records, and collective memory may be affected by selection, survivorship, social desirability, narrative reconstruction, and the moral framing of events after they have occurred.

    “These sources are valuable, but they may be affected by selection, survivorship, social desirability, narrative reconstruction, and the moral framing of events after they have occurred.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: High-cost helping is relatively rare, often context-specific, and frequently studied through retrospective accounts, historical documentation, testimony, organizational records, or collective memory.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Volunteering is not uniformly health-promoting but a context-dependent form of engagement whose psychological consequences (D7) depend on the configuration of the other dimensions.

    “The framework suggests that volunteering is not uniformly health-promoting but a context-dependent form of engagement whose psychological consequences (D7) depend on the configuration of the other dimensions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Dual-process models suggest that intuitive processing may facilitate cooperation under conditions of immediacy.

    “Dual-process models suggest that intuitive processing may facilitate cooperation under conditions of immediacy (44).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] Rand, 2012, Spontaneous giving and calculated greed, Nature source
81 of 81

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Volunteering or helping others may contribute to personal growth, a stronger sense of connectedness, and a clearer sense of purpose.

    “At one end, volunteering or helping others may contribute to personal growth, a stronger sense of connectedness, and a clearer sense of purpose.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The same kind of engagement may lead to stress, compassion fatigue, emotional exhaustion, or burnout.

    “At the other end, the same kind of engagement may lead to stress, compassion fatigue, emotional exhaustion, or burnout.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Volunteers may invest substantial emotional energy, time, physical effort, and personal resources, while also experiencing role strain, stress, and exposure to emotionally challenging situations.

    “Volunteers may invest substantial emotional energy, time, physical effort, and personal resources, while also experiencing role strain, stress, and exposure to emotionally challenging situations.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Volunteers interpret their roles, appraise demands, evaluate recognition, and situate their actions within frameworks of meaning and identity.

    “Volunteers interpret their roles, appraise demands, evaluate recognition, and situate their actions within frameworks of meaning (D6) and identity (D4).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Volunteers are not passive providers of assistance but active meaning-making agents whose experiences are influenced by autonomy, perceived efficacy, social connectedness, and the alignment between personal values and organizational goals.

    “Volunteers are not passive providers of assistance but active meaning-making agents whose experiences are influenced by autonomy, perceived efficacy, social connectedness, and the alignment between personal values and organizational goals.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Individuals who undertake demanding forms of helping often report emotional gratification, social appreciation, identity affirmation, meaning, and a sense of belonging.

    “Individuals who undertake demanding forms of helping often report emotional gratification, social appreciation, identity affirmation, meaning, and a sense of belonging.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Emotionally demanding roles are not distributed evenly and may be more common among women, older adults, and economically precarious groups.

    “Emotionally demanding roles are not distributed evenly and may be more common among women, older adults, and economically precarious groups.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Access to volunteering, and exposure to high-cost roles, are shaped by socioeconomic resources, time poverty, caregiving obligations, gendered and ethnicized expectations of care, age, disability, migration status, and proximity to crisis.

    “Access to volunteering, and exposure to high-cost roles, are shaped by socioeconomic resources, time poverty, caregiving obligations, gendered and ethnicized expectations of care, age, disability, migration status, and proximity to crisis.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Prosocial behaviors are shaped by cultural, social, organizational, and historical circumstances.

    “Prosocial behaviors are shaped by cultural, social, organizational, and historical circumstances.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Volunteers' motives are often complex, evolving, and only partly accessible to reflection.

    “In addition, volunteers' motives are often complex, evolving, and only partly accessible to reflection.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A person may describe an action in terms of altruism, obligation, identity, reciprocity, faith, political commitment, or personal meaning, and these accounts may coexist rather than compete.

    “A person may describe an action in terms of altruism, obligation, identity, reciprocity, faith, political commitment, or personal meaning, and these accounts may coexist rather than compete.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    High-cost helping is relatively rare, often context-specific, and frequently studied through retrospective accounts, historical documentation, testimony, organizational records, or collective memory.

    “It is relatively rare, often context-specific, and frequently studied through retrospective accounts, historical documentation, testimony, organizational records, or collective memory.”
12 of 12

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Frankl, 1963, Man's Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy
  2. Figley, 1995, Compassion Fatigue: Coping with Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder in Those Who Treat the Traumatized
  3. Monroe, 1996, The Altruistic Perspective: Perceptions of a Shared Humanity. The Heart of Altruism: Perceptions of a Common Humanity, 197
  4. Tajfel, 1979, “An integrative theory of intergroup conflict, 33

Cited by

Still being checked.

Related

Authors
Sarid, O.
Affiliations
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (IL)
Corresponding author
Sarid, Orly
ORCID
Sarid, Orly
Venue
Frontiers in Public Health
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2026-08-18
Volume
14
Pages
1908108-1908108
ISSN
2296-2565 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fpubh.2026.1908108
PMC
PMC13529753
OpenAlex
W7203710813
Cited by
0
References
46
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Nonprofit Sector and Volunteering
  • Social Sciences › Demography › Tourism, Volunteerism, and Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Keywords
volunteering, prosocial behavior, altruism, volunteer motivation, personal cost, social embeddedness, identity integration, moral commitment, volunteer well-being, compassion fatigue, burnout, community resilience, social connectedness, multidimensional framework
MeSH terms
Altruism, Helping Behavior, Humans, Morals, Motivation, Social Behavior, Volunteers

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-06.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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