The DOI matches its Crossref record; 126 of the 136 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
TARGET ARTICLE: Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem
Abstract
In this article, I present a theoretical perspective on the nature of "optimal" self-esteem. One of my major goals is to show that optimal and high self-esteem are different from each other. High self-esteem can be fragile or secure depending upon the extent to which it is defensive or genuine, contingent or true, unstable or stable, and discrepant or congruent with implicit (nonconscious) feelings of self-worth. Optimal self-esteem is characterized by qualities associated with genuine, true, stable, and congruent (with implicit self-esteem) high self-esteem. A second major goal is to present a conceptualization of the construct of authenticity. I propose that authenticity as an individual difference construct may be particularly important in delineating the adaptive features of optimal self-esteem. Authenticity can be characterized as the unobstructed operation of one's true, or core, self in one's daily enterprise. I argue that authenticity has 4 components: awareness, unbiased processing, action, and relational. Initial data pertaining to these components are highly encouraging. Finally, I discuss some implications of the fragile versus secure high self-esteem distinction for narcissism, defensive processing models, and cross-cultural self-esteem perspectives.
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In the citing paper
“Kernis' (2003) theory of authenticity was not specific to leadership but was meant to differentiate an optimal or stable self-esteem from a fragile or defensive self-esteem.”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as Kernis, 2003
In the citing paper
“Kernis' work identified four components of authenticity: self-awareness, unbiased processing of self-relevant information, behavior in accordance with one's true self, and openness and honesty in relationships.”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as Kernis, 2003
In the citing paper
“As such, there is a risk of developing contingent self-worth (Deci and Ryan 1995;Kernis 2003) insofar as individuals feel that they must live up to specific standards or attain particular outcomes to be worthy.”
From Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions (2020) · cites this paper as Kernis 2003
In the citing paper
“identifies four core elements of authenticity: self-awareness, unbiased processing, relational authenticity, and authentic behavior/action.”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis (2003)
In the citing paper
“the previously discussed arguments advanced by Kernis (2003) that authenticity involves unbiased (balanced) processing, relational transparency/authenticity, and authentic behavior.”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis (2003)
In the citing paper
“Kernis' (2003) assertion that authenticity (through self-awareness and relational transparency) fosters positive affective states.”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis (2003)
In the citing paper
“Once again, however, the discussion of these topics is not well integrated with available theory and research on the self-systems of leaders and followers (Hoyle, Kernis, Leary, & Baldwin, 1999; Kernis, 2003) or positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Snyder & Lopez, 2002)”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis, 2003
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Igarashi, T., Nihei, M., Inoue, T., Sugawara, I., & Kamata, M. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191811319 · Cited by 17
“On the other hand, older adults with lower self-esteem, which is known to be negatively correlated with neuroticism in the Big Five personality model, tends to become less selfdisclosure [50,51].”
BackgroundMartis, C., Levante, A., Carlo, E. D., Ingusci, E., Signore, F., & Lecciso, F. (2024) · Disabilities · doi:10.3390/disabilities4040050 · Cited by 15
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Fulton, J. J., & McLemore, C. (2012) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2012.688778 · Cited by 15
“The association between self-esteem and relationship outcomes may be complicated to some degree by the fact that high self-esteem is a heterogeneous construct consisting of both a secure form and a fragile form (see Kernis, 2003, for a review).”
BackgroundTHE ART OF CONVERSATION: HOW AUTHENTIC LEADERS INFLUENCE ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING
Mazutis, D. D., Ivey, R., & Slawinski, N. (2007) · Cited by 15
Self-esteem of physical education students: sex differences and relationships with intelligence
Guszkowska, M., Kuk, A., Zagórska, A., & Skwarek, K. (2015) · Current Issues in Personality Psychology · doi:10.5114/cipp.2015.55406 · Cited by 15
“According to Kernis (2003), self-esteem is an affective reaction of a person to oneself.”
BackgroundChoi, Y.-S., Shin, E., Hong, D.-Y., Kim, J.-R., Kang, Y. S., Jeong, B., Park, K., & Lee, K. H. (2019) · Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.3961/jpmph.18.095 · Cited by 15
“Furthermore, an approximately 50% decrease in unruly behavior and verbal or physical aggression was found after implementing a self-esteem program in a school [35].”
BackgroundGrover, S. L. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110312 · Cited by 16
The Relationship between Authentic Leadership and Work Engagement
Başaran, R., & KIRAL, E. (2020) · International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research · doi:10.33200/ijcer.767560 · Cited by 17
“(Kernis, 2003).”
Karelaia, N., Guillén, L., & Leroy, H. (2021) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/00187267211025286 · Cited by 15
“Our article started from the assumption that authentic individuals stay true to a core or true self (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAdaptive self-concept: Identifying the basic dimensions of self-beliefs
Jankowski, T., Bąk, W., & Miciuk, Ł. R. (2021) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2021.1997796 · Cited by 24
Pavlickova, H., Turnbull, O. H., & Bentall, R. P. (2013) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12015 · Cited by 15
“However, in psychological research it has typically been assessed by self-report measures, limiting our ability to capture the complexity of the relevant processes (Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Paradise, 2002).”
BackgroundErfassung von Self-Handicapping im Lern- und Leistungsbereich
Schwinger, M., & Stiensmeier‐Pelster, J. (2012) · Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1026/0049-8637/a000061 · Cited by 15
Suppression of negative self-referent thoughts: A field study
Borton, J. L. S., & Casey, E. C. (2006) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860600654749 · Cited by 16
“Conversely, given that people with fragile or unstable selfesteem tend to react strongly to self-esteem-relevant events (Kernis, 2003), it is possible that individuals with unstable high self-esteem may be particularly likely to suppress their negative self-referent thoughts as a means of warding off ego threat.”
BackgroundHepper, E. G. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-397045-9.00076-8 · Cited by 28
Bunjak, A., Lord, R. G., & Acton, B. P. (2024) · Journal of Management & Organization · doi:10.1017/jmo.2024.69 · Cited by 14
“This discrepancy arises from the idea that AL may not comprehensively consider the unconscious dynamics influenced by an individual’s value system, which can significantly influence a leader’s choices and behaviors (Kernis, 2003).”
InfluentialZogmaister, C., & Maricutoiu, L. P. (2022) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-022-09723-5 · Cited by 14
“This finding is consistent with the notion that individuals with secure high self-esteem do not need defenses in front of the risk of negative self-relevant information (Kernis, 2003).”
ResultMalloy, E., Yukhymenko–Lescroart, M. A., & Kavussanu, M. (2022) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1177/17479541221139280 · Cited by 17
Obuba, M. O. (2023) · Open Journal of Leadership · doi:10.4236/ojl.2023.121007 · Cited by 24
Chen, X., Dai, B., Li, S., & Liu, L. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01758-x · Cited by 20
“Prevention and intervention efforts should focus on fostering genuine self-esteem, one that is based on self-acceptance and a sense of self-worth, rather than reliance on external validation [62].”
BackgroundSelf-Esteem Instability and the Desire for Fame
Noser, A. E., & Zeigler‐Hill, V. (2014) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2014.927394 · Cited by 15
“This has certainly been a productive area of inquiry that has shed some light on the connections between feelings of self-worth and a variety of life outcomes but there is a rapidly growing consensus that there is more to self-esteem than simply whether it is high or low (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialFactors associated with self-esteem following acquired brain injury in adults: A systematic review
Curvis, W., Simpson, J., & Hampson, N. (2016) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2016.1144515 · Cited by 18
“The concept of “high” self-esteem has been discussed as dichotomous by Kernis (2003), who compared secure high self-esteem with fragile high self-esteem.”
BackgroundExplaining Stakeholder Identification with Moderate Prestige Collectives: A Study of NASCAR Fans
Elsbach, K. D., & Cable, D. M. (2018) · Organization Studies · doi:10.1177/0170840618789190 · Cited by 14
“Authentic self-expression is a defining characteristic of what it means to be human (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundLinking Motivational Leadership with Creativity
Thrassou, A., Orfanos, D., & Tsoukatos, E. (2018) · Palgrave studies in cross-disciplinary business research, in association with EuroMed Academy of Business · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90945-5_5 · Cited by 14
Ostermeier, K. K., Medina‐Craven, M. N., Camp, K. M., & Davis, S. (2020) · The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science · doi:10.1177/0021886320976627 · Cited by 17
“Following Kernis (2003), we define relational authenticity as how true to oneself (genuine) an individual is in their relationships with coworkers and supervisors.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWomen’s attractiveness contingent self-esteem, romantic rejection, and body dissatisfaction
Harrington, A. G., & Overall, N. C. (2021) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.06.004 · Cited by 17
Latent Profiles of Parental Academic Conditional Positive and Negative Regard
Steffgen, S. T., Soenens, B., Otterpohl, N., Stiensmeier‐Pelster, J., & Schwinger, M. (2022) · Parenting · doi:10.1080/15295192.2021.2010501 · Cited by 18
“This finding implies that individuals who perceive only high PACPR during adolescence display a fragile and unstable sense of self-worth even later in life, potentially putting them at risk for long-term vulnerability (Kernis, 2003; Ryan & Brown, 2003; Ryan & Deci, 2017).”
BackgroundAsıcı, E., & Sarı, H. İ. (2022) · Acta Educationis Generalis · doi:10.2478/atd-2022-0006 · Cited by 14
“Self-esteem, which is considered as a central element of daily life (Kernis, 2003), includes one’s evaluations of self-concept and emotional reactions about one’s own characteristics (Burger, 2006).”
BackgroundIntellectual structure of leadership studies in hospitality and tourism
Bavik, A., & Köseoğlu, M. (2022) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-10-2021-1264 · Cited by 13
Bowles, D., Armitage, C. J., Drabble, J., & Meyer, B. (2013) · Personality and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/pmh.1230 · Cited by 14
“A single-item measure, subjected to a pilot study (see below), was constructed to tap the core component of self-esteem, “ how people feel about themselves ” (Kernis, 2003, p. 1).”
Prevention groups: Today and tomorrow.
Harpine, E. C., Nitza, A., & Conyne, R. K. (2010) · Group Dynamics Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/a0020579 · Cited by 12
Health care managers learning by listening to subordinates’ dialogue training
Grill, C., Ahlborg, G., & Wikström, E. (2014) · Journal of Health Organization and Management · doi:10.1108/jhom-01-2013-0010 · Cited by 14
“The categories of self-awareness are values, identity, emotions, goals, and motives, and “self-awareness is an unbiased processing of authentic action and relational transparency” (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundRelational Behavior of Leaders
Gilbert, G. R., Myrtle, R. C., & Sohi, R. S. (2014) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051814548278 · Cited by 14
“Relational transparency on the part of the leader influences trust in others through the leaders’ ethical character and openly sharing information with others (Kernis, 2003).”
Wilkinson, M. R., Ball, L. J., & Alford, D. (2015) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0168-4 · Cited by 14
“…mechanisms that can enable personal expectations to be achieved in the future. corresponding Author: Professor linden J. Ball, school of Psychology University of central lancashire, Preston, Pr1 2he, UK, tel: +44 (0)1772 893421. email: lBall@uclan.ac.uk AbstrAct Keywords doi • 10.5709/acp-0168-4”
BackgroundInfluentialBakari, H., & Hunjra, A. I. (2017) · Business & Economic Review · doi:10.22547/ber/9.2.2 · Cited by 14
“…on objective analysis of data, incorporating views from all relevant quarters, inviting and welcoming opposite thoughts that may challenge their long rooted beliefs, being impartial while processing information and avoiding exaggeration and distortion of facts (Gardner et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003).”
Authentic Leadership and Psychological Capital: The Impact on Egyptian Employees' Work Well Being
Maher, A., Mahmoud, H. S., & Hefny, S. E. (2017) · Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management · Cited by 14
Social Motivation and Object Relations: Narcissism and Interpersonal Self-Esteem Regulation
Rhodewalt, F. T. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511735066.020 · Cited by 14
Self-ambivalence in obsessive-compulsive disorder
Bhar, S. S. (2005) · Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) · Cited by 14
Work alienation through the dialectical lens
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Solmaz, S. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251323673 · Cited by 15
“Additionally, the fact that SE is a motivational and cognitive perception (Kernis, 2003) highlights the important relationship between PSS and SE.”
A newly detected bias in self-evaluation
Deffuant, G., Roubin, T., Nugier, A., & Guimond, S. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0296383 · Cited by 16
“This conclusion complements previous research about “optimal self-esteem” [44], which distinguishes between fragile and secure self-esteem and advocates for unbiased processing in order to reach authenticity.”
ResultChen, G., Wang, J., Dong, Z., & Zhang, X. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1046914 · Cited by 13
“Kernis (2003) found that the openness and authenticity of leaders would lead to a high level of trust between supervisors and subordinates.”
BackgroundWojtyna, E., Pasek, M., Nowakowska, A., Goździalska, A., & Jochymek, M. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11152203 · Cited by 13
“Fragile self-esteem is a situation in which high explicit self-esteem is accompanied by low implicit self-esteem [40,41].”
BackgroundSharma, G., Yukhymenko–Lescroart, M. A., & Sanchez, T. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19614 · Cited by 13
Silva, V., Duarte, A. P., & Oliveira, J. P. (2023) · Administrative Sciences · doi:10.3390/admsci13100219 · Cited by 28
Rook, C., Leroy, H., Zhu, J., & Anisman‐Razin, M. (2024) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/00187267241288109 · Cited by 13
“…fixed assumption of the self typically assume that being authentic leads to optimal or true self-esteem—self-esteem that is stable and deeply rooted within (Kernis, 2003), or a eudaimonic well-being, which is stable over time because it results from one’s daimon or true self (Ryan and Deci, 2001).”
Self‐Esteem as a Complex Dynamic System: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Microlevel Dynamics
Ruiter, N. M. P. D., Hollenstein, T., van Geert, P. L. C., & Kunnen, E. S. (2018) · Complexity · doi:10.1155/2018/4781563 · Cited by 13
“These instances all suggest that the individual is “misrepresenting their feelings” by not divulging negative behaviors or self-aspects ([29], p.”
BackgroundInfluentialEffect of ethical leadership on employee performance in uganda
Obicci, P. A. (2014) · Journal of Management and Science · doi:10.26524/jms.2014.22 · Cited by 15
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“relations with others (Kernis, 2003; Northouse, 2013), and communicate themselves by the”
BackgroundThe Effect of Affect on Learning: Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
Habrat, A. (2013) · Second language learning and teaching · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-35305-5_14 · Cited by 13
Is Paranoia a Defence against or an Expression of Low Self–Esteem?
Cicero, D. C., & Kerns, J. G. (2010) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.794 · Cited by 13
“Explicit self-esteem can be defined broadly as how a person feels about themselves (Kernis, 2003), while implicit self-esteem refers to automatic, over learned and non-conscious evaluations of the self that guide spontaneous reactions to self-relevant stimuli espondence to: John G. Kerns,…”
BackgroundUnderstanding and Reducing the Impact of Defensiveness on Management Learning
Holmer, L. L. (2013) · Organizational Behavior Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/1052562913505568 · Cited by 13
“If a distinction is made between secure and fragile high self-esteem (Kernis, 2003; Kernis et al., 2008) empirical research validates the assumption that high secure self-esteem is less easily threatened.”
BackgroundFrederick, H. R., Wood, J. A. “., West, G. R. B., & Winston, B. E. (2016) · Journal of Research on Christian Education · doi:10.1080/10656219.2016.1237907 · Cited by 13
“However, the concepts share many common terms and concepts, such as discovering oneself and remaining open (Posner & Kouzes, 2011), accurately conveying self (Tonkin, 2014), reflecting on and learning from mistakes (Avolio, 2005), telling the truth and admitting mistakes (Posner & Kouzes, 2011), practicing personal tr…”
BackgroundAlessandri, G., Perinelli, E., Longis, E. D., Rosa, V., Theodorou, A., & Боргогни, Л. (2016) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2016.1262357 · Cited by 13
“Contemporary theorists (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, 2003) have proposed that there are actually two forms of high self-esteem.”
BackgroundInfluentialCore self-evaluations associated with workaholism: the mediating role of perceived job demands
An, Y., Sun, X., Wang, K., Shi, H., Liu, Z., Zhu, Y., & Luo, F. (2020) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-05-2019-0263 · Cited by 13
Burch, G. S. J., & Anderson, N. R. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.046 · Cited by 13
Authentic leadership in English education: what do college teachers tell us?
Stoten, D. W. (2014) · International Journal of Educational Management · doi:10.1108/ijem-04-2013-0049 · Cited by 13
Park, J. Y., Ryu, V., Ha, R. Y., Lee, S. J., Choi, W.-J., Ha, K., & Cho, H.-S. (2013) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.09.012 · Cited by 13
“Explicit self-esteem can be assessed by deliberate, conscious self-reports, whereas implicit self-esteem can be assessed by automatic, non-conscious responses [10].”
BackgroundAcademically-contingent self-worth: Different dimensions differentially predict future vulnerability
Lawrence, J. S., & Gonzales, J. E. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03516-x · Cited by 9
“Specifically, self-esteem instability may largely explain why generally-contingent students, but not positively-contingent students, are vulnerable to psycho - logical costs (Crocker & Park, 2004 ; Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundAuthentic leadership and employee engagement: the mediating role of employee work environment
Dartey‐Baah, K., Issahaku, L., & Akwetey-Siaw, B. (2024) · Industrial and Commercial Training · doi:10.1108/ict-06-2024-0045 · Cited by 12
Toker, Y., & Sümer, H. C. (2010) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2010.00420.x · Cited by 12
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“This is consistent with self-regulation to the extent that an individual controls his or her transparency with others (Kernis, 2003; Northouse, 2013).”
BackgroundTHE IMPACT OF AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP ON ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING CAPACITY
OKMEN, S., Elçi, M., MURAT, G., & YILMAZ, Y. (2018) · Journal of Global Strategic Management · doi:10.20460/jgsm.2018.261 · Cited by 12
“On the contrary, authentic behavior involves one's own and others acting in harmony with their values, preferences, and needs (Kernis, 2003).”
Benevolent Conformity: The Influence of Perceived Motives on Judgments of Conformity
Wice, M., & Davidai, S. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167220963702 · Cited by 15
The Experience Qualities Approach to Leadership and Employee Well-being
Salmi, I., Pietiläinen, V., & Syväjärvi, A. (2020) · Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies · doi:10.18291/njwls.122593 · Cited by 12
“Second, experience as a concept encompasses different experience qualities, such as emotion, knowledge, belief, assumption, intuition, sense, and perception (Coates & Coleman 2015; Kernis 2003; March 2010; Rauhala 1995).”
BackgroundAli, A. Z. F., Saad, E. S. S., & Alshammari, F. T. (2019) · Evidence-Based Nursing Research · doi:10.47104/ebnrojs3.v1i2.88 · Cited by 12
“Authentic leadership causes followers to feel more committed to achieving the goals and objectives that have set, given their degree of perceived authenticity (Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2005).”
BackgroundHarrison, C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-68672-1_3 · Cited by 12
Kim, S., Noh, G., & Miao, S. (2022) · International Journal of Organization Theory and Behavior · doi:10.1108/ijotb-01-2022-0016 · Cited by 14
Kostogianni, N., & Andronikof, A. (2009) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2008.10.006 · Cited by 12
Shum, C. W. S., Gatling, A., Book, L. A., & Bai, B. (2017) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-017-3471-0 · Cited by 12
“Measured as the average level of fellow followers’ transparency, peer transparency represents a general Self-regulation and Follower Transparency 10 social context on whether other group members value and achieve openness and truthfulness in their relationships (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialVem, L. J., Goyit, M. G., & Wurim, P. B. (2017) · IOSR Journal of Business and Management · doi:10.9790/487x-1903038292 · Cited by 12
“In addition, the authentic nature in them is reflected in the hegemony between their values, beliefs and actions (Kernis, 2003), hence individual’s values rather than external factors such as threats, social or financial influences guide his or her conduct (Ryan & Deci, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialOtterpohl, N., Keil, A. G., Assor, A., & Stiensmeier‐Pelster, J. (2017) · Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1026/0049-8637/a000172 · Cited by 13
“…dass diese nur unter bestimmten Bedingungen Wertschätzung verdienen und dass dement-sprechend der eigene Selbstwert abhängig vom Erfüllen externer Kriterien ist (Deci & Ryan, 1985; für eine Abgren-zung der verschiedenen Selbstwertfacetten siehe Kernis, 2003; Schöne & Stiensmeier-Pelster, 2016).”
BackgroundBae, J., Yoo, H. S., & Lee, J. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111634 · Cited by 12
A Research on the Consequences of Authentic Leadership
Tabak, A., Polat, M., Çoşar, S., & Türköz, T. (2013) · Bogazici Journal · doi:10.21773/boun.27.2.4 · Cited by 12
“Trust is a result of the leader-follower relationship; the relational authenticity has the effect of creating more trust in inter-personal relationships (Kernis, 2003) and of the leaders enhancing their transparency to gain more trust from their followers (Avolio et al.”
BackgroundInfluential이윤주, & Kim, J. (2012) · Korea Journal of Counseling · doi:10.15703/kjc.13.5.201210.2229 · Cited by 12
To Thine Own Self Be True? an Exploration of Authenticity
Franzese, A. T. (2007) · DukeSpace (Duke University) · Cited by 12
Jordan, C. H., Zeigler‐Hill, V., & Cameron, J. J. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.25090-3 · Cited by 17
Ledingham, M. D., Standen, P., Skinner, C., & Busch, R. (2019) · Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/21507686.2019.1634600 · Cited by 12
“From a clinical perspective, a ‘ false self ’ drives behaviour (Freudenberger, 1975) aimed at shoring up ‘ false self-esteem ’ (Kernis, 2003), and the experience of normal human emotions is restricted (Shostrom, 1973).”
Butler, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.623675 · Cited by 19
“When young people base their developing identities on evaluations related to these extrinsic value targets, their self-image can become contingent on meeting them (Campbell, 1990; Kernis, 2003; Patrick et al., 2004).”
BackgroundEffects of Authentic Leadership, Behavioral Integrity, and Project Governance on Project Performance
Cao, Q. R., Swain, A. K., Sirisomboonsuk, P., & Gu, V. C. (2024) · Project Management Journal · doi:10.1177/87569728241231936 · Cited by 14
“Through a journey of personal and team introspection, authentic leaders diligently steer clear of misrepresenting, exaggerating, or dismissing crucial information essential for their decision-making processes (Gardner et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003).”
Restubog, S. L. D., Schilpzand, P., He, Y., Lyons, B. J., & Deen, C. M. (2024) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2024.104010 · Cited by 13
Yang, F., & Liu, Y. (2025) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2025.105141 · Cited by 11
Chinese male addicts' drug craving and their global and contingent self-esteem
Chen, X., Ye, J., & Zhou, H. (2013) · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · doi:10.2224/sbp.2013.41.6.907 · Cited by 11
Kane, A., Yarker, J., & Lewis, R. (2021) · International Coaching Psychology Review · doi:10.53841/bpsicpr.2021.16.1.67 · Cited by 11
A transdiagnostic model of low self-esteem: pathway analysis in a heterogeneous clinical sample
Kresznerits, S., Rózsa, S., & Perczel-Forintos, D. (2021) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465821000485 · Cited by 12
“We can distinguish ‘fragile’/unstable and ‘secure’/stable self-esteem (Borton et al., 2012; Kernis, 2003), or implicit (automatic, unconscious self-evaluation) and explicit © The Author(s), 2021.”
BackgroundSelf-esteem and evaluative beliefs in paranoia
Valiente, C., Cantero, D., Sánchez-López, Á., Provencio, M., & Wickham, S. L. (2014) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.01.002 · Cited by 12
“However, many authors have argued the importance of differentiating global self-esteem from specific self-evaluations that appraise specific abilities and attributions (Brown, Dutton, & Cook, 2001; Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundInterpersonal Neurobiology and Couple Relationship Quality: A Longitudinal Model
Gambrel, L. E., Faas, C., Kaestle, C. E., & Savla, J. T. (2016) · Contemporary Family Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10591-016-9381-y · Cited by 12
The association between vivid thoughts of death and authenticity
Seto, E., Hicks, J. A., Vess, M., & Geraci, L. D. (2016) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-016-9556-8 · Cited by 14
The role of approach and avoidance motivation in employee voice
Ma, C. (2016) · International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management · doi:10.1108/ijppm-01-2016-0002 · Cited by 14
Tibbs, S., Green, M., Montoya, J. A., & Gergen, E. (2016) · Administrative Issues Journal Education Practice and Research · doi:10.5929/2016.6.1.8 · Cited by 11
“Self-awareness is a dynamic process and is the degree to which the leader reflects and demonstrates an understanding of how (s)he derives and makes sense of the world and is aware of his or her strengths, limitations, how others see him or her, and how (s)he impacts others (Kernis, 2003; Walumbwa et al., 2008).”
BackgroundÇer, E., & Şahin, E. (2016) · Journal of Education and Learning · doi:10.5539/jel.v6n1p72 · Cited by 12
“It is one of the foundation elements for shaping self-image (Branden, 1994), in increasing motivation (Kernis, 2003), and in retaining success.”
BackgroundCameranesi, M., & Piotrowski, C. C. (2017) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-017-0180-x · Cited by 15
“Theory and research evidence suggest that four markers distinguish between secure and fragile high self-esteem (Kernis 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialLiu, C., & Hogg, M. K. (2018) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.07.033 · Cited by 11
Dramićanin, S. (2019) · Bizinfo Blace · doi:10.5937/bizinfo1901029d · Cited by 13
“Self- awareness involves looking at oneself through interaction with others (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundDimopoulos, A. (2020) · International Journal of Human Resource Studies · doi:10.5296/ijhrs.v10i2.16701 · Cited by 11
Authentic Leadership: A Bibliometric Analysis
Margiadi, B., & Wibowo, A. (2020) · International symposia in economic theory and econometrics · doi:10.1108/s1571-038620200000027005 · Cited by 11
AKYÜREK, M. İ. (2021) · Uluslararası Liderlik Çalışmaları Dergisi Kuram ve Uygulama · doi:10.52848/ijls.913993 · Cited by 13
Evolutionary Personality Psychology
Lewis, D. M. G., Al-Shawaf, L., & Buss, D. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.022 · Cited by 11
Increasing leaders’ self-concept-clarity in the authentic leadership coaching group
Fusco, T., O’Riordan, S., & Palmer, S. (2016) · The Coaching Psychologist · doi:10.53841/bpstcp.2016.12.1.24 · Cited by 11
A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Self-Verification Motives
English, T., Chen, S., & Swann, W. B. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-373694-9.00006-4 · Cited by 10
Ethical and unethical leadership: Double vision?
Millar, C., Delves, R., & Harris, P. (2010) · Journal of Public Affairs · doi:10.1002/pa.363 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Kernis, M. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Georgia (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kernis, Michael H.
- Venue
- Psychological Inquiry
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-01
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-26
- ISSN
- 1047-840X (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7965
- OpenAlex
- W1981141777
- Cited by
- 1,683
- References
- 136
- Citations by year
- 2026: 62 · 2025: 83 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 96 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 97 · 2018: 109 · 2017: 87 · 2016: 111 · 2015: 94 · 2014: 97 · 2013: 92 · 2012: 84
- FWCI
- 28.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Inquiry (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- high self-esteem, authenticity, implicit self-esteem, defensive processing, narcissism, individual differences, self-awareness
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