TARGET ARTICLE: Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem

“Some years ago, Ajzen and Fishbein (1977) made a similar point regarding the usefulness of attitudes as predictors of behaviors.”

“Both of these models draw heavily from the work of Kernis (2003), although there are some differences in their application of his ideas.”

“A much different pattern of information processing and outcomes is apparent for relatively authentic persons who possess optimal selfesteem (Kernis, 2003), including authentic leaders.”

“Drawing on an extensive research program and a comprehensive review of the relevant literature, Kernis (2003) advanced a developmental model that posits attainment of authenticity produces “optimal” levels of self-esteem.”

“As such, there is a risk of developing contingent self-worth (Deci and Ryan 1995; Kernis 2003) insofar as individuals feel that they must live up to specific standards or attain particular outcomes to be worthy.”

“When people are focused on extrinsic goals, they tend to be more oriented toward interpersonal comparisons (Patrick, Neighbours, & Knee, 2004; Sirgy, 1998), contingent approval (Kernis, 2003), and acquiring external signs of self-worth (Kasser, Ryan, Couchman, & Sheldon, 2004).”

“…extremely important one that is currently generating a great deal of theoretical interest and empirical research (e.g., Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Deci & Ryan, 1995, 2000; Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Waschull, 1995; Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Goldenberg, 2003; Schimel, Arndt, Pyszczynski, & Greenberg, 2001).”

“Although there are important exceptions (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, 2003; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001), most of the scientific debate as well as public discourse has focused on whether self-esteem is high or low.”

“…refers to bwhether people act in accord with their true self [. . ..] behaving authentically means acting in accord with one’s values, preferences, and needs as opposed to acting merely to please others or to attain rewards or avoid punishments through acting bfalselyQ (Kernis, 2003, p. 14).”

“…the issue of how authenticity and self‐esteem relate is complex because high self‐esteem has multiple forms, some more closely related to psychological health and well‐being than are others (Jordan, Logel, Spencer, & Zanna, in press; Kernis, 2003; Kernis &Waschull, 1995; Paradise & Kernis, 2002).”

“Kernis (2003) has posited that authenticity should be related more to secure self-esteem than to insecure self-esteem, and this could now be tested directly.”

“…that have recently been offered as alternatives to self-esteem, such as ‘‘true self-esteem’’ (Deci & Ryan, 1995) or ‘‘non-contingent self-esteem’’ (Kernis, 2003) Deci and Ryan (1995) define true self-esteem as a sense of self-worth that is not dependent on set standards but which is…”

“linked to genuine, or “authentic,” self-esteem, whereas hubristic pride should be more closely linked to “fragile” self-esteem ( Kernis, 2003; Tracy & Robins, 2003).”

“Moreover, Thompson and Waltz (2008) sampled 210 undergraduates (22 of whom met criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) who had experienced a Criterion A trauma.”

“Similarly, the temporal stability of self-views has been shown to be significant, in that highly stable self-views generally have higher predictive validity than unstable selfviews (Kernis, 2003).”

“…derives and makes sense of the world and is aware of his or her strengths, limitations, how others see him or her, and how (s)he impacts others (Kernis, 2003; Walumbwa et al., 2008); (2) Balanced processing is the degree to which the leader shows that (s)he objectively analyzes the relevant…”

“Because people with contingent self-worth tend to exaggerate failures and underestimate successes in the domains of contingency, the acknowledgment of the ingroup by others is never satisfactory (Crocker & Park, 2004; Kernis, 2003; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001).”

“As said before, stronger emotional reactivity might seem to be an obstacle to an accurate response to the environment as well as a source of unstable or labile self-esteem and depression (Kernis, 2003).”

“…anxious and depressed (Mruk, 1999; Brown & Marshall, 4 Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 14 (2008) 1–34 ª 2008 International Communication Association 2001; Kernis, 2003; Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Solomon, Arndt, & Schimel, 2004; Donnellan, Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffitt & Caspi, 2005).”

“Kernis’ (2003) theory of authenticitywas not specific to leadership but wasmeant to differentiate an optimal or stable self-esteem from a fragile or defensive self-esteem.”

“…or state-specific self-evaluations is inappropriate; research on the consequences associated with discrepancies between one’s global or trait self-views and one’s momentary self-views is an active field of investigation (Ferris, Spence, Brown, & Heller, in press; Kernis, 2003), for example.”

“Utilizing findings from positive psychology and related fields, as well as previous operationalizations (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; George, 2000; Kernis, 2003; Luthans & Avolio, 2003), Ilies, Morgeson and Nahrgang (2005) developed a four-dimensional model of authentic leadership.”

“In addition to the issues regarding social comparison and discrepancy reviewed above, such an analysis also suggests that ACC's ideology encourages a particular form of self-esteem that researchers have called “fragile” or “contingent” ( Deci and Ryan, 1995 ; Crocker, 2002 ; Kernis, 2003 ).”

“The second, more obsessive, mode of functioning leads people to engage in the passionate activity with a fragile and contingent sense of self-esteem (Crocker, 2002; Kernis, 2003) and a defensiveness against experience that leads one to self-protect.”

“…students at the time, Bruce Grannemann, we began to develop a conceptualization of the meaning and nature of unstable (barometric) self-esteem (Kernis, Grannemann, & Barclay, 1989; see also Kernis, 2003a; Kernis & Goldman, 2002; Kernis & Paradise, 2002; Kernis & 1574 Kernis Waschull, 1995).”

“…the same components of authenticity that are present in authentic leaders are also present in authentic followers: that is, they “draw on the work of Kernis (2003) and Deci & Ryan (1995, 2000) in positing that authenticity among followers is characterized by self-awareness, internalized regulatory…”

“…such leaders have been defined as being aware of and acting in accordance with high moral and ethical values, while displaying specific behaviors and actions that are consistent with those high moral standards (Avolio & Luthans, 2006; Gardner et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003; Luthans & Avolio, 2003).”

““Self” is a philosophical or psychological concept (see also Kernis, 2003) whereas “role” is a response to external expectations.”

“Authentic leaders behave in accordance with their values and strive to achieve openness and truthfulness in their relationships with followers (Gardner et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003).”

“For example, people can dismiss the validity of negative feedback by rejecting it as inaccurate or biased (Baumeister, 1998; Kernis, 2003; Kunda, 1990).”

“Defined as ‘‘the unobstructed operation of one’s true, or core, self in one’s daily enterprise’’ (Kernis, 2003: 13), authentic living allows individuals to achieve the most fulfilling and satisfying life possible, according to many philosophers, writers, and researchers (e.g., Guignon, 2004;…”

“…studies point to the fact that persons who clearly know their attitudes and values as well as their strengths and weaknesses across different domains and situations experience higher levels of positive affect and well-being, which may in turn, enable them to behave authentically (cf. Kernis 2003).”

“Awareness refers to " having awareness of, and trust in, one's motives, feelings, desires, and self-relevant cognitions " (Kernis, 2003, p. 13).”

“…competence (Ryan and Deci, 2000), grit (Duckworth et al., 2007), self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977), healthy self-esteem (Tafarodi and Swann, 1995; Kernis, 2003), autonomy (Ryan and Deci, 2000), meaning (Steger et al., 2006; Martela and Steger, 2016), purpose (Damon, 2009), engagement and flow…”

“Thus, it seems likely that these individuals would experience temporal fluctuations in their explicit self-esteem (i.e., self-esteem instability; Kernis, 2003).”

“In recent years, as “positive psychology” (Seligman, 2002) has taken over the earlier role of humanistic psychology, significantly enhancing it with contemporary empirical methods, the concept of authenticity has been revived (e.g., Adams, 2006; Johnson, Robinson, & Mitchell, 2004; Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2006…”

“Authentic functioning is primarily inwardfocused reflecting behaviors that indicate whether one remains true to oneself (Kernis 2003; Jackson 2005), while behavioral integrity is primarily outward-focused, as others’ perceptions of alignment between word and deeds (Simons 2002).”

“These acts enhance employees’ trust, allowing them to shed their disguises and masks, share information openly, and express their true thoughts and feelings (Kernis 2003; Walumbwa et al. 2008).”

“Instability of selfesteem is the result of being ego-involved in events, or having contingent self-worth (Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, 2003).”

“…their Use of Control Crocker and colleagues (Crocker & Knight, 2005; Crocker & Wolfe, 2001) maintain that the areas of life on which individuals' sense of worth is contingent regulate their behavior, such that they seek to minimize failure and maximize success in such areas (see also Kernis, 2003).”

“The other approach holds that there are meaningful individual differences in the overall extent to which people possess contingent versus non-contingent self-esteem (Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, 2003).”

“Self-awareness refers to demonstrating an understanding of how one makes meaning of the world and how that meaning impacts the way one views himself or herself over time (Kernis, 2003).”

“Indeed, introjection supplies the developmental basis for internally controlling regulation, as exemplified in ego involvement (Ryan, 1982), contingent self-worth (Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, 2003), and self-critical perfectionism (Frost et al.”

“Because authenticity predicts a variety of positive psychological outcomes (Harter, 2002; Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2005a; Ryan & Deci, 2004; Sheldon et al., 1997), an implication of these findings is that it might be possible for individuals to improve their mental health by enacting these behavioral contents.”

“There is little doubt that having high, authentic, and stable self-esteem is associated with various benefits (e.g., Kernis, 2003).”

“According to Kernis (2003), secure self-esteem can be “characterized by the relative absence of defensiveness, that is, being willing to divulge negative behaviours or self-aspects in the absence of excessively strong desires to be liked by others” (p. 13).1 Such self-esteem stems from positive…”

“In line with the conceptual model of authentic leadership (Gardner et al., 2005), these characteristics can be grouped in three authentic leadership dimensions; self-awareness, self-regulation, and positive modeling.”

“People with contingent self-worth exaggerate failures and underestimate successes in the domains of contingency (Baumeister & Vohs, 2001; Crocker & Park, 2004; Kernis, 2003; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001).”

“Recent research and theory (Goldman, 2006; Kernis, 2003) also suggest that authenticity, defined as the unimpeded operation of one’s true self in one’s daily enterprise (Goldman & Kernis, 2002), is important to healthy self-esteem.”

“Subjective feelings of authenticity are vital to psychological well-being (e.g., Gross & John, 2003; Kernis, 2003; Sheldon et al, 1997; Swann & Pelham, 2002a).”

“It is often difficult to distinguish between secure and fragile high self-esteem but there are three primary markers that are generally used for this purpose (see Kernis 2003, for a review): discrepancies between implicit and explicit selfesteem (Bosson et al. 2003; Jordan et al. 2003), contingent self-esteem (Crocker…”

“Instead, they are threatening, judgment-oriented experiences that put one’s entire self on the line (see Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Kernis, 2003, for conceptual parallels) and that put one’s sense of relational security in jeopardy (Elliot & Reis, 2003).”

“Therefore, several attempts have been made to distinguish secure from fragile forms of high SE and to conceptualize ‘optimal self-esteem’ (see Kernis, 2003, for a review).”

“…values as a guide for behavior, their feelings of self-worthwill be high and stable because they are rooted in the true self, rather than contingent on (and thus vulnerable to) one’s success or failure with respect to external standards (Crocker & Park, 2004; Kernis, 2003; Wood et al., 2008).”

“As discussed earlier, fundamental to authenticity in social interactions is genuineness and transparency (Kernis & Goldman, 2006; Rogers, 1961). Yet people will be most authentic and most open about their experiences and emotions when they feel that their autonomy is supported. As with self-reported authenticity, SDT…”

“In fact, most theorists and researchers have come to acknowledge that the self-esteem of narcissists is somewhat fragile and that this fragility may account for at least some of the behaviors associated with narcissism (e.g., aggression, interpersonal difficulties; Kernis, 2003; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001).”

“nl that favorable views of self can take qualitatively different forms, varying from secure and genuine to vulnerable and defensive (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Deci & Ryan, 1995; Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, Hoshino-Browne, & Correll, 2003; Kernis, 2003).”

“Contingent selfesteem reflects the extent to which one’s positive self-image is conditional or contingent upon social approval, meeting externally imposed expectations, or other perceived criteria, including appearance (Crocker and Wolfe 2001; Kernis 2003).”

“In line with this reasoning, opposing associations were found regarding trait self-esteem (that is strongly related to the level of state self-esteem; e.g., Kernis, 2003, 2005): In the studies by Back et al. (2013) links to self-esteem were positive for admiration and negative for rivalry.”

“PSPB, Vol. 30 No. 4, April 2004 501-514 DOI: 10.1177/0146167203261891 © 2004 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc. for affect and esteem (Kernis, 2003).”

“Cognitive complexity is derived from psychological theories of cognition originating half a centaury ago in the work of George Kelly (1955), Walter H. Crockett (1965), Schroder, Driver, and Streufert (1967), and O.”

“In addition to the social effects of self-disclosure, self-worth, identity, and psychological health and well-being have been considered as further consequences of self-disclosure (Greene et al., 2006; Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2006).”

“In fact, Deci and Ryan (1995) assert that individuals with contingent high self-esteem will rationalize or even distort potentially threatening information to avoid declines in feelings of self-worth (cf. Crocker, Sommers, & Luhtanen, 2002; Kernis, 2003).”

“…to individual differences in the magnitude of defensive behaviors, specifically assessing the extent to which authenticity (Goldman & Kernis, 2002; Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2006) and mindfulness (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, in press) predicted verbal defensiveness (Feldman…”

“Recently, Kernis (2003), although continuing to favor an individual-differences view of the construct, proposed that authenticity incorporates awareness, unbiased processing, action, and a relational (italics added) orientation.”

“Leaders are considered authentic when they engage in behaviors such as self-awareness, relational transparency, balanced processing information, and internalized moral perspective (Gardner et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003; Walumbwa et al., 2008).”

“In proposing that self-verification striving should lead to better organizational entry, our research aligns with positive organizational scholarship, a field of scientific inquiry emphasizing the benefits of personal authenticity to both employees and organizations (e.g., Cameron, Dutton, Quinn, & Wrzensniewski, 2003…”

“…better physical and mental health outcomes (Baumaister, 1993); in pursuing their goals, they adopt more efficacious strategies, are less prone to give up in front of obstacles and adversities (Kernis, 2003), have more self-confidence and feel more control over life events (Tedeschi & Norman, 1985).”

“This argument is congruent with Deci and Ryan’s (1995; see also Kernis, 2003) view that for some people (i.e., individuals who are not ego-involved and/or individuals with optimal and secure high selfesteem), feelings of self-worth do not depend on specific environmental outcomes and do not require…”