The DOI matches its Crossref record; 126 of the 136 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
TARGET ARTICLE: Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem
Abstract
In this article, I present a theoretical perspective on the nature of "optimal" self-esteem. One of my major goals is to show that optimal and high self-esteem are different from each other. High self-esteem can be fragile or secure depending upon the extent to which it is defensive or genuine, contingent or true, unstable or stable, and discrepant or congruent with implicit (nonconscious) feelings of self-worth. Optimal self-esteem is characterized by qualities associated with genuine, true, stable, and congruent (with implicit self-esteem) high self-esteem. A second major goal is to present a conceptualization of the construct of authenticity. I propose that authenticity as an individual difference construct may be particularly important in delineating the adaptive features of optimal self-esteem. Authenticity can be characterized as the unobstructed operation of one's true, or core, self in one's daily enterprise. I argue that authenticity has 4 components: awareness, unbiased processing, action, and relational. Initial data pertaining to these components are highly encouraging. Finally, I discuss some implications of the fragile versus secure high self-esteem distinction for narcissism, defensive processing models, and cross-cultural self-esteem perspectives.
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In the citing paper
“Kernis' (2003) theory of authenticity was not specific to leadership but was meant to differentiate an optimal or stable self-esteem from a fragile or defensive self-esteem.”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as Kernis, 2003
In the citing paper
“Kernis' work identified four components of authenticity: self-awareness, unbiased processing of self-relevant information, behavior in accordance with one's true self, and openness and honesty in relationships.”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as Kernis, 2003
In the citing paper
“As such, there is a risk of developing contingent self-worth (Deci and Ryan 1995;Kernis 2003) insofar as individuals feel that they must live up to specific standards or attain particular outcomes to be worthy.”
From Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions (2020) · cites this paper as Kernis 2003
In the citing paper
“identifies four core elements of authenticity: self-awareness, unbiased processing, relational authenticity, and authentic behavior/action.”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis (2003)
In the citing paper
“the previously discussed arguments advanced by Kernis (2003) that authenticity involves unbiased (balanced) processing, relational transparency/authenticity, and authentic behavior.”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis (2003)
In the citing paper
“Kernis' (2003) assertion that authenticity (through self-awareness and relational transparency) fosters positive affective states.”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis (2003)
In the citing paper
“Once again, however, the discussion of these topics is not well integrated with available theory and research on the self-systems of leaders and followers (Hoyle, Kernis, Leary, & Baldwin, 1999; Kernis, 2003) or positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Snyder & Lopez, 2002)”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis, 2003
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Yagil, D., & Medler-Liraz, H. (2013) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051813483833 · Cited by 62
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Chadha, S., & Osterman, L. L. (2007) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.06.002 · Cited by 66
Knoll, M. S., Meyer, B. M., Kroemer, N. B., & Schröder–Abé, M. (2015) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000153 · Cited by 73
“Item source: Items 1, 2, 3, 7, and 8 are originally from the Authenticity Inventory 3 by Kernis and Goldman (2006); items 4, 5,”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-Esteem Instability and Personality
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Holden, C. J., Enjaian, B., Southard, A. C., Avi Besser, A., Li, H., & Zhang, Q. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214559719 · Cited by 62
“As a result, the present studies will examine self-esteem level in conjunction with self-esteem instability which refers to fluctuations in moment-to-moment feelings of self-worth (see Kernis, 2003, for a review).”
MethodResultWhat Is Implicit Self-Esteem, and Does it Vary Across Cultures?
Falk, C. F., & Heine, S. J. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868314544693 · Cited by 85
“First, implicit attitudes are thought to be generally in agreement with explicit attitudes (e.g., Epstein, 2006; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006; but see Hetts & Pelham, 2001) with a disjunction theoretically indicating psychological dysfunction (Bosson, 2006; Epstein, 2006; Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundTrans employees, transitioning, and job satisfaction
Drydakis, N. (2016) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2016.09.003 · Cited by 67
Lee, S., & Pounders, K. R. (2018) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.04.039 · Cited by 62
The mediating role of authenticity on mindfulness and wellbeing: a cross cultural analysis
Chen, S., & Murphy, D. (2018) · Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/21507686.2018.1556171 · Cited by 69
“Kernis (2003) defined authenticity as ‘the unobstructed operation of one’s true- or coreself in one’s daily enterprise’ (p. 13) and states that authenticity can be broken down into four separate, but interrelated, components.”
BackgroundRen, L., Lee, S. K., & Chun, S. Y. (2023) · International Journal of Consumer Studies · doi:10.1111/ijcs.12898 · Cited by 61
The Cognitive-Motivational Compound of Emotional Experience
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“Alternatively, A may not consciously attach value to youthfulness, but may still value youthfulness unconsciously (for evidence supporting the implied difference between “explicit” and “implicit” self-esteem, see e.g., Epstein & Morling, 1995; Jordan, Spencer, & Zanna, 2003; Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundImpact of Authentic Leaders on Organization Performance
Khan, S. N. (2010) · International Journal of Business and Management · doi:10.5539/ijbm.v5n12p167 · Cited by 61
“Kernis (2003) defines the authenticity as “The unobstructed operations of one’s true or core, self in one’s daily enterprise”.”
BackgroundWarszewska-Makuch, M., Bedyńska, S., & Żołnierczyk-Zreda, D. (2015) · International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/10803548.2015.1028230 · Cited by 61
Queering the Gender Binary: Understanding Transgender Workplace Experiences
Sawyer, K. B., Thoroughgood, C. N., & Webster, J. R. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29623-4_2 · Cited by 67
Whitford, T., & Moss, S. A. (2009) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650209346800 · Cited by 69
“The praise could momentarily boost the self-esteem of followers but concomitant variability in self-esteem can also provoke fragility (Kernis, 2003; see also Wood, Heimpel, Newby-Clark, & Ross, 2005).”
BackgroundSelf-certainty: Parallels to Attitude Certainty
DeMarree, K. G., Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2007) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 58
Authentic Leadership and Service Innovative Behavior: Mediating Role of Proactive Personality
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“Consequently, in line with Kernis (2003), conceptualization of authenticity and latest empirical evidence given by Walumbwa et al. (2008), AL was regarded as a higher order construct represented with four dimensions in the present study.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe European Proceedings of Social & Behavioural Sciences
Căpiță, L. E., Huijgen, T., & Căpiță, C. (2016) · Cited by 60
Self-regulation and control in personality functioning
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.027 · Cited by 59
Impact of Big Five personality traits on authentic leadership
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Effects of School on the Well-Being of Children and Adolescents
BACETE, F. J. G., Perrin, G. M., Schneider, B. H., & Blanchard, C. M. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9063-8_149 · Cited by 68
Who Turns Green with Envy? Conceptual and Empirical Perspectives on Dispositional Envy
Rentzsch, K., & Gross, J. J. (2015) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2012 · Cited by 60
“Thus, the self-esteem of people high in dispositional envy should not just be low but also contingent on comparison outcomes (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodWhy bother? Death, failure, and fatalistic withdrawal from life.
Hayes, J., Ward, C. L. P., & McGregor, I. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000039 · Cited by 58
Authenticity attenuates the negative effects of interpersonal conflict on daily well-being
Wickham, R. E., Williamson, R. E., Beard, C. L., Kobayashi, C. L. B., & Hirst, T. W. (2015) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2015.11.006 · Cited by 59
Self-esteem and counterproductive work behaviors: a systematic review
Whelpley, C. E., & McDaniel, M. A. (2016) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/jmp-01-2014-0008 · Cited by 56
“(1996) interpretation of ego threat as accounting for a positive relationship between self-esteem and CWB (Kernis, 2003; Kernis et al., 1989).”
BackgroundAuthentic Leadership, Trust (in the Leader), and Flourishing: Does Precariousness Matter?
Kleynhans, D. J., Heyns, M. M., Stander, M. W., & Beer, L. T. D. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.798759 · Cited by 93
“According to Kernis (2003), authentic leaders are positive and optimistic, and these positive emotions tend to spill over to employees as if these emotions were contagious.”
Background自分らしくある感覚 (本来感) と自尊感情がwell-beingに及ぼす影響の検討
Ito, M., & Kodama, M. (2005) · The Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.5926/jjep1953.53.1_74 · Cited by 36
de Castro, B. O., Brendgen, M. R., van Boxtel, H. W., Vitaro, F., & Schaepers, L. (2007) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9063-6 · Cited by 62
“An even more promising perspective may be to extend studies of self-perception and self-evaluation beyond a one-dimensional scope on positivity or negativity to more intricate aspects of self-perception, such as defensiveness, vulnerability to negative feedback, and variability ( Kernis, 2003; Salmivalli, 2001).”
BackgroundTowards an integrated model of leadership and self regulation
Moss, S. A., Dowling, N. A., & Callanan, J. (2009) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.01.005 · Cited by 58
Liu, H., Cutcher, L., & Grant, D. (2016) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726716672920 · Cited by 59
“Authentic leaders are said to know and trust their own thoughts, feelings, motives and values (Kernis, 2003) and possess a balanced perception of their strengths and weaknesses (Walumbwa et al., 2008).”
BackgroundAuthenticity, Social Motivation, and Psychological Adjustment
Kernis, M. H., & Goldman, B. M. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511735066.014 · Cited by 60
Self-citationCOMMUNITY ACTIVISTS’ COMPETENCE: THE CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
Zanbar, L., & Itzhaky, H. (2013) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.21527 · Cited by 57
Valkenburg, P. M., Pouwels, J. L., Beyens, I., van Driel, I. I., & Keijsers, L. (2021) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000037 · Cited by 57
“Self-esteem theories also argue that it is not so much self-esteem level but self-esteem instability that may inform hypotheses on the in fl uence of one ’ s experiences on self-esteem (e.g., Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundWriting can heal: Effects of self-compassion writing among Hong Kong Chinese college students.
Wong, C. C. Y., & Mak, W. W. S. (2016) · Asian American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1037/aap0000041 · Cited by 77
Predictors of new graduate nurses’ health over the first 4 years of practice
Laschinger, H. K. S., Wong, C. A., Read, E. A., Cummings, G. G., Leiter, M. P., MacPhee, M., Regan, S., Rhéaume‐Brüning, A., Ritchie, J. A., Burkoski, V., et al. (2018) · Nursing Open · doi:10.1002/nop2.231 · Cited by 66
“In authentic leadership theory, high levels of self‐awareness are essential as they provide leaders with insight and understanding of their own strengths and limitations (Kernis, 2003), and their values and be‐ liefs (Avolio & Gardner, 2005).”
BackgroundVater, A., Ritter, K., Schröder-Abé, M., Schütz, A., Lammers, C.-H., Bosson, J. K., & Roepke, S. (2013) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.07.001 · Cited by 54
Dimensions of authentic leadership and patient care quality
Puni, A., & Hilton, S. K. (2020) · Leadership in health services · doi:10.1108/lhs-11-2019-0071 · Cited by 58
Self-esteem Instability and Psychological Adjustment
Zeigler‐Hill, V., & Wallace, M. T. (2011) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2011.567763 · Cited by 56
“For example, it appears that high self-esteem is a heterogeneous construct consisting of both a secure form and a fragile form (see Kernis, 2003, for a review).”
BackgroundEbrahimi, M., Kouchaki, M., & Patrick, V. M. (2019) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.02.005 · Cited by 55
The Pursuit of Self-Esteem and Its Motivational Implications
van der Kaap-Deeder, J., Wouters, S., Verschueren, K., Briers, V., Deeren, B., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2016) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.277 · Cited by 55
“Theoretically, CSE is assumed to relate primarily to introjected regulation (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, 2003), although evidence for this claim is scarce and rather indirect.”
BackgroundThe joys of genuine giving: Approach and avoidance sacrifice motivation and authenticity
Impett, E. A., Javam, L., Le, B. M., Asyabi-Eshghi, B., & Kogan, A. (2013) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12012 · Cited by 63
“Authenticity involves being genuine, “true to oneself,” or not “fake,” in one’s relationships with others (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundSchöne, C., Tandler, S. S., & Stiensmeier-Pelster, J. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01573 · Cited by 57
“Preceding the investigation of our hypothesis, the first purpose of Study 1 was to describe the development of aCSE, self-esteem (SE) level, and DS in adolescence in a sample of German students aged 10–16 (N = 1888) in order to provide a foundation for further analyses.”
BackgroundShahid, S., & Muchiri, M. (2018) · International journal of organizational analysis · doi:10.1108/ijoa-05-2017-1167 · Cited by 67
Narcissistic admiration and rivalry in the context of personality metatraits
Rogoza, R., Żemojtel-Piotrowska, M. A., Rogoza, M., Piotrowski, J. P., & Wyszyńska, P. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.07.003 · Cited by 55
“Although the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale is the most popular scale for measuring self-reported global positive self-evaluation (Brummelman et al., 2016), it is worth noting that differences between normal and pathological narcissism also reflect the stability of self-esteem (e.g., Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundAuthentic leadership theory development: theorizing on Chinese philosophy
Zhang, H., Everett, A. M., Elkin, G., & Cone, M. H. (2012) · Asia Pacific Business Review · doi:10.1080/13602381.2012.690258 · Cited by 53
“From a developmental perspective, such relational authenticity can be achieved through building up trustworthiness as well as openness in relationships and continually increasing environmental mastery (Kernis 2003, Ilies et al. 2005), as indicated in Quotations 9 and 10.”
Authentic Nurse Leadership Conceptual Framework
Giordano-Mulligan, M., & Eckardt, S. (2019) · Nursing Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1097/naq.0000000000000344 · Cited by 53
Potgieter, I. L. (2012) · SA Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.4102/sajhrm.v10i2.419 · Cited by 53
“It reflects and affects their dealings with the environment and the people with whom they come into contact (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundSelf-serving responses arising from discrepancies between explicit and implicit self-esteem
Kernis, M. H., Abend, T. A., Goldman, B. M., Shrira, I., Paradise, A. W., & Hampton, C. (2005) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860500146028 · Cited by 57
“Our findings for individuals with high explicit self-esteem are consistent with recent theory and research that distinguishes between secure and fragile forms of high self-esteem (e.g., Kernis, 2003a, 2003b).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationOrkibi, H., & Brandt, Y. I. (2015) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v11i3.869 · Cited by 59
“For example, high self-esteem, which refers to how people regard and accept themselves (Harter, 1993), has been associated with more effective coping approaches and persistence when facing problems and difficulties (Kernis, 2003), and with having a greater sense of control over life events (Tedeschi & Norman, 1985).”
BackgroundImplicit and explicit self-esteem discrepancies in paranoia and depression.
Valiente, C., Cantero, D., Vázquez, C., Sánchez-López, Á., Provencio, M., & Espinosa, R. (2011) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0022856 · Cited by 52
“Overall, healthy controls tended to present congruent SE (i.e., positive implicit and explicit SE), which has been labeled as secure SE (Kernis, 2003).”
InfluentialPersonality in cross-cultural perspective
Dragūns, J. G. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.035 · Cited by 51
The Human Penguin Project: Climate, Social Integration, and Core Body Temperature
IJzerman, H., Lindenberg, S. M., Dalḡar, İ., Weißgerber, S. C., Vergara, R. C., Cairo, A. H., Čolić, M. V., Dursun, P., Frankowska, N., Hadi, R., et al. (2018) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.165 · Cited by 53
“Thus, staking too much in any particular type of relationship is risky and potentially isolating if conflict arises or we do not feel we are meeting the standards in a particular life domain (Crocker et al., 2003; Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, 2003; Steverink & Lindenberg, 2008).”
BackgroundDietl, E., & Reb, J. M. (2019) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726719888260 · Cited by 54
“This scale has been recommended for assessing state authenticity (Sedikides et al., 2017), and it measures three facets of felt authenticity, which are aligned with Kernis’ conceptualization of authenticity (Kernis, 2003; Lenton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMethodKelley, T. M., & Lambert, E. G. (2012) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0090-9 · Cited by 57
“This results in fragile high self-esteem, which must be maintained or validated (Goleman 2006; Kernis 2003; Ryan and Brown 2006), often by retaliating against the source of the perceived threat (Kernis et al.”
BackgroundShooting from the Hip: A Habit Perspective of Voice
Lam, C. F., Rees, L. L., Levesque, L. L., & Ornstein, S. (2017) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2015.0366 · Cited by 49
Wang, Y., Nie, R., Li, Z., & Zhou, N. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.04.012 · Cited by 51
The dark side of socialization: How and when divestiture socialization undermines newcomer outcomes
Montani, F., Maoret, M., & Dufour, L. (2019) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2351 · Cited by 52
Barnard on conflicts of responsibility
Novičević, M. M., Davis, W., Dorn, F., Buckley, M. R., & Brown, J. A. E. (2005) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/00251740510634930 · Cited by 50
Self‐Concept Structure and the Quality of Self‐Knowledge
Showers, C. J., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Zeigler‐Hill, V. (2014) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12130 · Cited by 65
“This makes self-esteem potentially fragile (Kernis, 2003).”
The relationship between multidimensional perfectionism and contingencies of self-worth
Hill, A. P., Hall, H., & Appleton, P. R. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.036 · Cited by 50
“This includes acceptable levels of internal consistency (α = .85) and test-retest reliability ( r = .77) (Kernis, 2003; Paradise & Kernis, 1999).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSoares, A. E., & Lopes, M. P. (2017) · Active Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.1177/1469787417742023 · Cited by 66
“Others (e.g. Ilies et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003) call it simply authentic behaviours/actions.”
BackgroundGrandiose and entitled, but still fragile: A network analysis of pathological narcissistic traits
Pierro, R. D., Costantini, G., Benzi, I. M. A., Madeddu, F., & Preti, E. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.04.003 · Cited by 55
Chon, D., & Sitkin, S. B. (2021) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2018.0079 · Cited by 59
Moss, S. A. (2008) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051808327880 · Cited by 51
“Self-esteem, attachment style, and belief in a just world seem to be shaped over many years, across a multitude of experiences, and should thus be insensitive to brief interactions with transformational leaders (cf. Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundSelf‐esteem in patients with borderline and avoidant personality disorders
LYNUM, L. I., WILBERG, T., & KARTERUD, S. (2008) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00655.x · Cited by 80
Explaining the “How” of Self-Esteem Development: The Self-Organizing Self-Esteem Model
Ruiter, N. M. P. D., van Geert, P. L. C., & Kunnen, E. S. (2017) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000099 · Cited by 55
Mota, S., Humberg, S., Krause, S., Fatfouta, R., Geukes, K., Schröder–Abé, M., & Back, M. D. (2019) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2019.1620012 · Cited by 54
“Also, within the field of personality psychology, researchers have linked narcissism with fragile selfesteem (Kernis, 2003), and have suggested that this fragility might be due to selfesteem instability, contingent self-esteem, or discrepancy between ESE and ISE.”
BackgroundThe Emotional Dynamics of Narcissism: Inflated by Pride, Deflated by Shame
Tracy, J. L., Cheng, J. T., Martens, J. P., & Robins, R. W. (2011) · The Handbook of Narcissism and Narcissistic Personality Disorder · doi:10.1002/9781118093108.ch29 · Cited by 49
Plasencia, M. L., Taylor, C. T., & Alden, L. E. (2016) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702615622204 · Cited by 48
“…higher and more secure selfesteem, and greater positive affect (e.g., Brunell et al., 2010; Goldman & Kernis, 2002; Heppner et al., 2008; Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2006; Kernis & Heppner, 2008; Lopez & Rice, 2006; Robinson, Lopez, Ramos, & Nartova-Bochaver, 2013; Wood, Linley,…”
BackgroundDu, J., Ma, E., Lin, X., & Wang, Y. (2021) · Cornell Hospitality Quarterly · doi:10.1177/19389655211033540 · Cited by 56
“First, characterized by their high levels of self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-concordance (e.g., Luthans & Avolio, 2003), authentic leaders can model these characteristics to other employees (e.g., Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundZhang, J., Meng, J., & Wen, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517920 · Cited by 102
“…with better mental health, more positive social relationships, and greater life satisfaction, while low levels of self-esteem may lead to emotional problems, social difficulties, and mental health issues, potentially affecting an individual’s quality of life and life satisfaction (Kernis, 2018).”
Mruk, C. J. (2013) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.2478/ppb-2013-0018 · Cited by 48
“For example, Kernis (2003) found that self-esteem helps individuals take the risks necessary for actualizing their intrinsic values and to expand the self in those directions.”
BackgroundMethodHow Self-Esteem Shapes our Interactions with Play Technologies
Birk, M. V., Mandryk, R. L., Miller, M. K., & Gerling, K. (2015) · Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play · doi:10.1145/2793107.2793111 · Cited by 55
“, ideal self) [19], leading to actions that are truly important to the individual.”
BackgroundQian, J., Lin, X., & Chen, G. Z. X. (2012) · Journal of Management & Organization · doi:10.5172/jmo.2012.18.3.286 · Cited by 50
“The self-disclosure process involves supervisors openly sharing information and knowledge, as well as a mutual communication of the true thoughts and feelings that often enhance the development of mutual intimacy and trust (Eagly, 2005; Gardner et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003; Walumbwa et al., 2008).”
BackgroundEmerging Adulthood, Evolving Worldviews
Gutierrez, I. A., & Park, C. L. (2014) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696814544501 · Cited by 49
“…into its component elements (e.g., confidence, mastery, self-evaluation, and trait narcissism), modeling the contextual variance of self-worth and identifying factors that moderate or mediate the impact of self-worth on psychological outcomes of interest (e.g., authenticity; see Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundIaniro-Dahm, P. M., & Kauffeld, S. (2014) · Consulting psychology journal · doi:10.1037/cpb0000012 · Cited by 48
Authentic Leadership and High-Performance Human Resource Practices: Implications for Work Engagement
Karam, E. P., Gardner, W. L., Gullifor, D. P., Tribble, L. L., & Li, M. (2017) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s0742-730120170000035004 · Cited by 57
Unanue, W., Rempel, K., Gómez, M. E., & den Broeck, A. V. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01755 · Cited by 59
“Extrinsic values, in contrast, leads people to forsake their inherent growth oriented nature and engage in stressful interpersonal comparisons in which one’s self-esteem is at stage (Kernis, 2003).”
Wouters, S., Duriez, B., Luyckx, K., Klimstra, T. A., Colpin, H., Soenens, B., & Verschueren, K. (2013) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.03.001 · Cited by 52
Cleavenger, D. J., Gardner, W. L., & Mhatre, K. H. (2006) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-006-9032-7 · Cited by 45
“High selfesteem individuals may be more equipped to defend against negative information because they carry more favorable self-cognitions than do low self-esteem individuals (Dittes, 1959; Judge & Bono, 2001; Kernis, 2002 ).”
BackgroundThe impact of follower narcissism and LMX perceptions on feeling envied and job performance
Treadway, D. C., Yang, J., Bentley, J. R., Williams, L. V., & Reeves, M. (2017) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2017.1288151 · Cited by 47
“This is a very different set of core characteristics than (1) the adaptive nature of high, yet stable, self-esteem (Kernis, 2003), (2) the cold and egotistically unbiased nature of Machiavellianism (Christie & Geis, 1970), or (3) the socially removed core of psychopathy.”
BackgroundMaking Time Matter: A Review of Research on Time and Meaning
Rudd, M., Catapano, R., & Aaker, J. L. (2018) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.1087 · Cited by 50
Anwar, A., Abid, G., & Waqas, A. (2019) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe10010003 · Cited by 56
“It is the core characteristic of authethnic leaders to behave in harmony with their core values and beliefs [12], without fear of rejection [51].”
BackgroundHow and when top manager authentic leadership influences team voice: A moderated mediation model
Zheng, X., Liu, X., Liao, H., Qin, X., & Ni, D. (2022) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.02.073 · Cited by 48
Contingencies of Self‐worth in Early Adolescence: The Antecedent Role of Perceived Parenting
Wouters, S., Doumen, S., Germeijs, V., Colpin, H., & Verschueren, K. (2012) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12010 · Cited by 46
Effects of Contingent Self-Esteem on Depressive Symptoms and Suicidal Behavior
Lakey, C. E., Hirsch, J. K., Nelson, L. A., & Nsamenang, S. A. (2013) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2013.809035 · Cited by 46
What can we learn from senior leader narratives? The strutting and fretting of becoming a leader
Turner, J., & Mavin, S. A. (2008) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/01437730810876168 · Cited by 50
“An empirically grounded perspective is offered by Kernis (2003, p. 1”
BackgroundLi, B., Pan, Y., Liu, G., Chen, W., Lu, J., & Li, X. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105303 · Cited by 47
Kong, F., Lan, N., Zhang, H., Sun, X., & Zhang, Y. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01262-6 · Cited by 51
“As an important psychological merit, self-esteem is a central component of the self that refers to how people feel about themselves; this feeling affects how an individual confronts the surrounding environment (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundDavidson, A. C., & Moss, S. A. (2008) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x07309511 · Cited by 53
“These implausible aspirations tend to boost mood transiently but subsequently provoke disappointment, manifested as heightened variability in affect (see Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialJun, K., Hu, Z., & Sun, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1009639 · Cited by 64
“As Kernis (2003) demonstrated, when individuals come to know themselves, they are more comfortable forming transparent, open, and close relationships with others.”
BackgroundWaller, K. L., & MacDonald, T. K. (2010) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00650.x · Cited by 47
Mruk, C. J. (2008) · The Humanistic Psychologist · doi:10.1080/08873260802111176 · Cited by 52
“Other work has been done on the relationship between self-esteem and authenticity using traditional empirical methods (Kernis, 2003 ).”
MethodLiborius, P. (2013) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2013.801335 · Cited by 51
“Kernis (2003) argued that a key outcome of openness and truthfulness is a high level of trust.”
BackgroundKokkoris, M. D., & Kühnen, U. (2014) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022114542467 · Cited by 44
“” Prior research has identified self-expression as a critical determinant of authenticity (Guignon, 2004; Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2006; Rogers, 1961; Wood, Linley, Maltby, Baliousis, & Joseph, 2008).”
Emotional Labor in Sports Coaching: Development of a Model
Lee, Y. H., Chelladurai, P., & Kim, Y. (2015) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1260/1747-9541.10.2-3.561 · Cited by 46
Grégoire, S., Baron, L., Ménard, J., & Lachance, L. (2013) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/a0030962 · Cited by 44
“However, other researchers maintain that authenticity is an attitude (Harter, 1997; Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Paradise, 2002) or a behavior (Sheldon et al.”
BackgroundCooper, A., Sherman, R. A., Rauthmann, J. F., Serfass, D. G., & Brown, N. A. (2018) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2018.09.005 · Cited by 47
Brexit and Polexit: Collective narcissism is associated with support for leaving the European Union
Cisłak, A., Pyrczak, M., Mikiewicz, A., & Cichocka, A. K. (2020) · Social Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.32872/spb.2645 · Cited by 44
“While personal defensiveness opera‐ tionalized as individual narcissism aims to protect the self against external threats and is thus linked to enhanced vigilance, secure self-esteem (that is, self-esteem once the variance shared with individual narcissism is co-varied out) implies openness to criticism and readiness…”
BackgroundExplaining the effect of authentic and ethical leadership on psychological empowerment of nurses
Beiranvand, M. S., Beiranvand, S., Beiranvand, S., & Mohammadipour, F. (2021) · Journal of Nursing Management · doi:10.1111/jonm.13246 · Cited by 56
Alilyyani, B., Kerr, M., Wong, C. A., & Wazqar, D. Y. (2022) · Journal of Nursing Management · doi:10.1111/jonm.13895 · Cited by 53
Metadata
- Authors
- Kernis, M. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Georgia (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kernis, Michael H.
- Venue
- Psychological Inquiry
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-01
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-26
- ISSN
- 1047-840X (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7965
- OpenAlex
- W1981141777
- Cited by
- 1,683
- References
- 136
- Citations by year
- 2026: 62 · 2025: 83 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 96 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 97 · 2018: 109 · 2017: 87 · 2016: 111 · 2015: 94 · 2014: 97 · 2013: 92 · 2012: 84
- FWCI
- 28.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Inquiry (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- high self-esteem, authenticity, implicit self-esteem, defensive processing, narcissism, individual differences, self-awareness
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