The DOI matches its Crossref record; 126 of the 136 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
TARGET ARTICLE: Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem
Abstract
In this article, I present a theoretical perspective on the nature of "optimal" self-esteem. One of my major goals is to show that optimal and high self-esteem are different from each other. High self-esteem can be fragile or secure depending upon the extent to which it is defensive or genuine, contingent or true, unstable or stable, and discrepant or congruent with implicit (nonconscious) feelings of self-worth. Optimal self-esteem is characterized by qualities associated with genuine, true, stable, and congruent (with implicit self-esteem) high self-esteem. A second major goal is to present a conceptualization of the construct of authenticity. I propose that authenticity as an individual difference construct may be particularly important in delineating the adaptive features of optimal self-esteem. Authenticity can be characterized as the unobstructed operation of one's true, or core, self in one's daily enterprise. I argue that authenticity has 4 components: awareness, unbiased processing, action, and relational. Initial data pertaining to these components are highly encouraging. Finally, I discuss some implications of the fragile versus secure high self-esteem distinction for narcissism, defensive processing models, and cross-cultural self-esteem perspectives.
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In the citing paper
“Kernis' (2003) theory of authenticity was not specific to leadership but was meant to differentiate an optimal or stable self-esteem from a fragile or defensive self-esteem.”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as Kernis, 2003
In the citing paper
“Kernis' work identified four components of authenticity: self-awareness, unbiased processing of self-relevant information, behavior in accordance with one's true self, and openness and honesty in relationships.”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as Kernis, 2003
In the citing paper
“As such, there is a risk of developing contingent self-worth (Deci and Ryan 1995;Kernis 2003) insofar as individuals feel that they must live up to specific standards or attain particular outcomes to be worthy.”
From Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions (2020) · cites this paper as Kernis 2003
In the citing paper
“identifies four core elements of authenticity: self-awareness, unbiased processing, relational authenticity, and authentic behavior/action.”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis (2003)
In the citing paper
“the previously discussed arguments advanced by Kernis (2003) that authenticity involves unbiased (balanced) processing, relational transparency/authenticity, and authentic behavior.”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis (2003)
In the citing paper
“Kernis' (2003) assertion that authenticity (through self-awareness and relational transparency) fosters positive affective states.”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis (2003)
In the citing paper
“Once again, however, the discussion of these topics is not well integrated with available theory and research on the self-systems of leaders and followers (Hoyle, Kernis, Leary, & Baldwin, 1999; Kernis, 2003) or positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Snyder & Lopez, 2002)”
From Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership (2005) · cites this paper as Kernis, 2003
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Service Employees’ Trait Authenticity and Customer Satisfaction
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Wessel, J. L., Huth, M., Park, J. Y., & Welle, B. (2019) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550619848002 · Cited by 10
“…self/identity Psychological scholarship discusses authentic behavior as an important determinant of personal growth and well-being, as well as a vehicle for fulfilling basic needs of selfdetermination and self-verification (Deci & Ryan, 2002; Goldman & Kernis, 2002; Kernis, 2003; Swann, 1983).”
BackgroundWang, Q., Wang, H., Jiang, L., Li, Z., & Lyu, C. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-05443-x · Cited by 11
“Authenticity is the free and natural expression of core feelings, motives, and inclinations (Kernis, 2003).”
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“Self-esteem influences individuals how individuals react to their surroundings (Kernis 2003), and serves as both a crucial regulatory intermediary in social behavior and a significant driving force (Zhang 2006).”
Vonk, R. (2006) · Radboud Repository (Radboud University) · Cited by 10
Qian, J., Xiao-song, L., & Chen, Z. (2010) · ANU Open Research (Australian National University) · Cited by 10
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“[35] showed that self-esteem can be subject to short-term fluctuations, with alternating high and low levels.”
BackgroundKról, T., Wojtyna, E., Hyla, M., Michalik, P., & Michalski, T. (2022) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2022.100814 · Cited by 11
Profile Membership of Self-Worth Contingencies Predicts Well-being, Virtues, and Values
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“…perfectionism, fear of failure) because failure is not viewed as indicative of their wholeness or competency; rather, they are able to respond adaptively (i.e., meaning-making, cognitive reappraisal, emotion regulation, virtues) to these negatively valanced emotional experiences (Kernis, 2003).”
InfluentialExamining the Relationship between Authenticity and Self-Handicapping
Ahmet Cumhur, A. K. I. N., & Akın, Ü. (2014) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/09.pr0.115c26z1 · Cited by 10
“…is considered a central component of the good life in philosophical and psychological thought ( Davis, Hicks, Schlegel, Smith, & Vess, 2014 ), and is theorized to function as the foundation for a secure sense of high self-esteem, i.e., resilient to external threats (e.g., Kernis, 2003 ).”
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Humphreys, J. H., Williams, W. A., Clayton, R. W., & Novičević, M. M. (2011) · Management & Organizational History · doi:10.1177/1744935910378941 · Cited by 10
“Kernis (2003) described this as leaders being cognizant of their impact on other people.”
BackgroundWilliams, H., & Vess, M. (2016) · Imagination Cognition and Personality · doi:10.1177/0276236616646065 · Cited by 10
“In contrast, patterns of inner thought characterized by negative self-evaluations and concerns (guilty/fear-offailure daydreaming) were negatively linked to authentic living and positively linked to true self-alienation and acceptance of external influence, findings that align quite nicely with earlier work documentin…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDurand, G. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204214 · Cited by 10
“signify that higher levels of leadership and extroversion as defined by the DAPTQ indicates higher propensity to understand yourself and assess your strengths and weaknesses, higher selfregulation guided by moral standards and values, and higher propensity for an individual to represent himself to others as he is in r…”
BackgroundPsikolojik Rahatlık Algısının Otantik Liderliğin Sinizmin Üzerindeki Etkisinde Aracı Rolü
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Positive Mental Health Model Based on Authentic Leadership and Elements of Socialization
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“It is described by Kernis (2003) as a feature of authenticity, an awareness and confidence in the goals, feelings, desires, and self-cognitions Relevant It involves being aware of the strengths and weaknesses you have and understanding of emotions and personality of oneself (Ilies, Morgeson, &…”
BackgroundInfluentialA small initiative in the journey of making leaders with the help of authentic leadership model
Shrivastava, A. (2018) · Kybernetes · doi:10.1108/k-01-2018-0003 · Cited by 10
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“Otantik liderler, değerleri, inançları ve görüşleri doğrultusunda, şeffaf, ilkeli, dürüst ve gerçek ilişkiler kurarlar (Gardner vd., 2005; Ilies vd., 2005, Walumbwa vd., 2008; Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialRelationship between Self-Esteem and Self-Consciousness in Adolescents: An Eye-Tracking Study
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Intrinsic and extrinsic emotion regulation strategies in relation to pathological narcissism
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“…consists of a core psychological insecurity (i.e., narcissistic vulnerability) with narcissistic grandiosity as a maladaptive compensatory response (Kernis, 2003) – and these facets of pathological narcissism may be driven by, or at least coincide with, the use of specific emotion regulation…”
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“Furthermore, studies have revealed that self-esteem has some positive effects on well-being [29] and that there is an association between self-esteem and subjective well-being [30,31].”
BackgroundChing, B. H., Chen, T. T., & He, C. C. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02033-7 · Cited by 10
“Evidence suggests that continent self-worth is linked to fluctuations of self-esteem over time and instability of self-esteem represents an important risk factor for the development of anxiety and depression (Ching et al., 2021a, 2021b; Crocker et al., 2003; Crocker & Park, 2004; Kernis, 2003).”
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“We argue that engagement in a performance domain can magnify the emotional consequences of performance outcomes without necessarily harming the individual’s self-esteem (see also Kernis, 2003).”
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“Therefore, we think our findings expand mainstream perspectives (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Kernis, 2003) on contingent self-worth but do not align with Vonk and Smit’s (2012) alternative perspective.”
BackgroundResultBrueckmann, M., Teuber, Z., Hollmann, J., & Wild, E. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01380-3 · Cited by 15
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BackgroundResultInfluentialThe relationships between self‐esteem, self‐efficacy, and test anxiety: A cross‐lagged study
Liu, A., Guo, M., Liao, R., & Wang, X. (2023) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3346 · Cited by 19
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“Self-efficacy and Selfesteem are varying and distinct concepts (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundBorton, J. L. S., Oakes, M. A., & Lengieza, M. L. (2016) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2016.1218924 · Cited by 9
“As we and others have argued (e.g., Kernis, 2003), high explicit self-esteem may be either secure or fragile, depending on other relevant dimensions of self-esteem, such as stability, contingency, or implicit self-esteem.”
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“Self-esteem relates to individuals’ perceptions and feelings about themselves (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundSultana, U. S., RidzuanDarun, M., & Liu, Y. (2018) · Indian Journal of Science and Technology · doi:10.17485/ijst/2018/v11i5/120618 · Cited by 9
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“7), while Kolb (1984) understands learning to be “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (p.”
BackgroundDeveloping the Japanese version of the Southampton Nostalgia Scale
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“…る：Batcho, 1995）と Southampton Nostalgia Scale（以下， SNSとする：Routledge et al., 2008）がある。 BNIとは，Batcho（1995）によって作成された尺度 であり，20の対象（例：友達， 家族， 玩具， 実家）に 対して日常的にどの程度 nostalgiaを感じやすいかを それぞれ 1項目で測定するものである。特性 nostalgia の指標としては，20項目の平均得点が用いられるこ とが多いが，特定の対象に対する特性 nostalgiaを測 定する（Hart et al., 2011），あるいは…”
Evaluation of the Happiness Through Goal-Setting Training
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“…& Marcel, 2002）とされることから， 本研究では情動の知覚を情動の活用に関する情動知能 の構成要件の一つ，という立場をとる。 本 研 究で検 討 する EAQ（Rieffe, Oosterveld, Miers, Meerum Terwogt, & Ly, 2008） は，Rieffe, Meerum Terwogt, Petrides, Cowan, Miers, & Tolland（2007） の EAQ 原 版 を 改 訂した 尺 度 で あり，“ 情 動 の 識 別 （differentiating emotion）”…”
Power, communion and satisfaction: Authenticity as a common mediator in China
Wang, Y. N. (2014) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.12080 · Cited by 9
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“Furthermore, Kernis (2003) has suggested that while selfesteem is relatively stable, CSW requires continual validation and may therefore fluctuate based on changes in levels of perceived validation.”
BackgroundSurfacing Authentic Leadership: Inspiration from After Life
Billsberry, J., & North‐Samardzic, A. (2016) · Journal of Leadership Education · doi:10.12806/v15/i2/i1 · Cited by 9
“Where authentic leadership departs somewhat from more traditional notions of leadership is that it emphasizes being true to oneself and one’s value system rather than to a cause or a more abstract value system (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Kernis, 2003; Luthans & Avolio, 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialConway, D. G. (2007) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 9
The Nature, Origins, and Consequences of Finnish Shame-Proneness : A Grounded Theory Study
Malinen, B. (2010) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · Cited by 9
Authentic Transformational Leadership and Implicit Leadership Theories.
Nichols, T. W. (2008) · doi:10.12794/metadc9056 · Cited by 9
“The second theory is provided by Kernis (2003) with the contention that authenticity, specifically the self-awareness and relational transparency aspects, promotes positive affective states in followers.”
BackgroundSouth, S. C., Reichborn‐Kjennerud, T., Eaton, N. R., & Krueger, R. F. (2012) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118133880.hop205001 · Cited by 9
Kim, H. (2014) · SHAREOK (University of Oklahoma; Oklahoma State University; Central Oklahoma University) · Cited by 9
Perfectionism and Self-Esteem: The Mediating Role of Basic Psychological Needs
Burkitt, W. T. (2024) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941241303402 · Cited by 13
“Secondly, the present research did not consider other aspects of self-esteem such as contingent self-esteem, which is considered to be a less healthy and unstable form of self-esteem dependent upon extrinsic factors such as success and approval (Kernis, 2003).”
Brueckmann, M., Hachenberger, J., Wild, E., & Lemola, S. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00318-2 · Cited by 13
Using a Dance/Movement Therapy-Based Wellness Curriculum: An Adolescent Case Study
Hagensen, K. P. (2015) · American Journal of Dance Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10465-015-9199-4 · Cited by 11
Accuracy and bias in perceptions of relationship authenticity
Wickham, R. E., & Bond, M. H. (2019) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407519851567 · Cited by 8
“…definitions for authenticity have emerged since the early 2000s, including having knowledge of and publically expressing of one’s true or core self (Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2006), behaving consistently across social roles (Sheldon, Ryan, Rawsthorne, & Ilardi, 1997), and maintaining…”
BackgroundApproach–Avoidance Theories of Personality
Corr, P. J., & Krupıć, D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.025 · Cited by 12
Pan, B., Fan, S., Song, Z., & Li, Y. (2023) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s393191 · Cited by 9
Authentic leadership as a contemporary leadership model applied in Nigeria
Emuwa, A., & Fields, D. (2017) · African Journal of Economic and Management Studies · doi:10.1108/ajems-06-2016-0092 · Cited by 8
Öner, Ç. (2017) · Spor Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.25307/jssr.328103 · Cited by 8
Measuring the experience of off-price fashion shopping: scale development and validation
Mortimer, G., Fazel-e-Hasan, S. M., O'Donnell, K., & Strebel, J. (2018) · Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management · doi:10.1108/jfmm-01-2018-0005 · Cited by 7
Imtiaz, F., Ji, L., & Vaughan‐Johnston, T. I. (2018) · Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/jts5.32 · Cited by 10
Transformational and Authentic Leadership in Telework
Figueiredo, P. C. N., Leal, S. E., Lopes, I. S., Cascão, A. F., & Gomes, P. (2022) · Advances in human resources management and organizational development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-9840-5.ch013 · Cited by 8
Choi, E., ten Brummelhuis, L. L., & Leroy, H. (2024) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/15480518241231045 · Cited by 12
“…to voice with the expectation that higher general self-esteem (Brockner et al., 1998) or core self-evaluations (Chamberlin et al., 2017; Mowbray et al., 2014) will promote voice (cf., Premeaux & Bedeian, 2003); our fi ndings demonstrate that the fragility of self-esteem also matters (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialNOVE SPOZNAJE U ISTRAŽIVANJIMA SAMOPOŠTOVANJA: KONSTRUKT SIGURNOSTI SAMOPOŠTOVANJA
Jelić, M. (2012) · Drustvena istrazivanja · doi:10.5559/di.21.2.08 · Cited by 8
“Poznato je i to da osobe tzv. niskoga samopoštovanja imaju i neke pozitivne stavove o sebi (Pelham, 1991., prema Kernis, 2003.).”
BackgroundInfluentialAkın, Ü. (2014) · Cited by 8
Caprara, G. V., & Vecchione, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.038 · Cited by 9
Huang, P. (2017) · Open Journal of Leadership · doi:10.4236/ojl.2017.63009 · Cited by 10
Authentic Leadership and Authenticity: An Existential Perspective
Fortin, C., Baron, L., & Renucci, C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65307-5_10 · Cited by 8
Bao-yan, Y., Shasha, C. H. E. N., Su, S., & Fangli, C. H. E. N. (2021) · Acta Psychologica Sinica · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2021.00667 · Cited by 8
Uppathampracha, R., & Guoxin, L. (2021) · THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCE AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION · doi:10.18775/ijmsba.1849-5664-5419.2014.74.1002 · Cited by 8
“When a person is a real person, they will understand themselves and accept both their strengths and weaknesses, self-stability, unbiased, and sincere relationships with others, including concepts, philosophy, and values consistent with the behaviour expressed (Kernis, 2003).”
BackgroundAUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Pavlović, N. (2015) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 8
Troum, J. F. (2010) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) · Cited by 8
Farid, T., Iqbal, S., Khan, A., Ma, J., Khattak, A. N., & Din, M. N. U. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.605350 · Cited by 8
POLYMATHIC LEADERSHIP: THEORETICAL FOUNDATION AND CONSTRUCT DEVELOPMENT
ARAKI, M. E. (2015) · doi:10.17771/pucrio.acad.26112 · Cited by 10
Corner, K. J. (2015) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) · Cited by 8
Jealousy in romantic relationships, self-esteem and ego defenses
Adams, S. (2012) · Victoria University Research Repository (Victoria University) · Cited by 8
Yuan, M., Sun, Y., Wang, Y., & Yu, L. (2025) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579424001913 · Cited by 10
Liu, S., Tan, Q., Xiao-hui, Y., & Zhang, L. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00267-0 · Cited by 7
“with a wide range of psychological adjustment and well-being indices; they do not require the extended validation of success (Kernis 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMandal, E., & Moroń, M. (2019) · Social Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.32872/spb.v14i1.33507 · Cited by 9
“Self-esteem is a central compo‐ nent of everyday subjective experience (Kernis, 2003) and plays important psychological functions, from supporting tasks and goals, through regulating social relations and main‐ taining social positions to dealing with mortality salience (Baumeister, 1998; Baumeister…”
BackgroundInfluentialZheng, M., Peng, K., Yan, W., Lin, Y., Ni, Z., & Zhang, P. (2022) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1002/jad.12025 · Cited by 7
The gaslighting of authentic leadership revisited
Gardner, W. L., & McCauley, K. D. (2022) · Leadership · doi:10.1177/17427150221111635 · Cited by 8
“…(Avolio and Gardner, 2005; Gardner et al., 2005a) make clear, the authors were certainly aware of Bill George’s work, but the writings on authenticity by social psychologists Michael Kernis (2003) and Edward Deci and Richard Ryan (2000) provided its primary theoretical foundations (p. 804).”
BackgroundPeyton, T., Gip, H., Paşamehmetoğlu, A., & Guchait, P. (2023) · Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism · doi:10.1080/15332845.2023.2207987 · Cited by 9
“The four authentic leadership behaviors are based on the seminal article by Kernis (2003), which identifies four individual difference components for authenticity; a person demonstrates authenticity when at least all four capacities are present and working together effectively (Figure 2).”
InfluentialNam, K.-W., Kim, C., & Yoon, S. (2023) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1177/17479541231190036 · Cited by 7
“21 In summary, authentic leaders inspire members through leading by example, incorporating the principles they realized through self-re fl ection, and thereby building trust through behavioral integrity to help everyone naturally accept a common purpose.”
BackgroundKulari, G., Laneiro, T., Ribeiro, L., Leiter, M. P., & dos Santos, M. S. F. (2023) · Management Research The Journal of the Iberoamerican Academy of Management · doi:10.1108/mrjiam-03-2023-1391 · Cited by 7
Kim, J., & Kim, M. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2254638 · Cited by 10
“…schematic fit between an e-travel agent and the beliefs or expectations about perceived authenticity is created among target consumers (Beverland et al., 2008); (2) Authenticity demonstrates self-determination, self-awareness, and self-regulation as consumers ’ trait-like abilities (Kernis, 2003).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Kernis, M. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Georgia (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kernis, Michael H.
- Venue
- Psychological Inquiry
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-01
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-26
- ISSN
- 1047-840X (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7965
- OpenAlex
- W1981141777
- Cited by
- 1,683
- References
- 136
- Citations by year
- 2026: 62 · 2025: 83 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 96 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 97 · 2018: 109 · 2017: 87 · 2016: 111 · 2015: 94 · 2014: 97 · 2013: 92 · 2012: 84
- FWCI
- 28.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Inquiry (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- high self-esteem, authenticity, implicit self-esteem, defensive processing, narcissism, individual differences, self-awareness
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