Die another way – non-apoptotic mechanisms of cell death
Open accessAbstract
Regulated, programmed cell death is crucial for all multicellular organisms. Cell death is essential in many processes, including tissue sculpting during embryogenesis, development of the immune system and destruction of damaged cells. The best-studied form of programmed cell death is apoptosis, a process that requires activation of caspase proteases. Recently it has been appreciated that various non-apoptotic forms of cell death also exist, such as necroptosis and pyroptosis. These non-apoptotic cell death modalities can be either triggered independently of apoptosis or are engaged should apoptosis fail to execute. In this Commentary, we discuss several regulated non-apoptotic forms of cell death including necroptosis, autophagic cell death, pyroptosis and caspase-independent cell death. We outline what we know about their mechanism, potential roles in vivo and define outstanding questions. Finally, we review data arguing that the means by which a cell dies actually matters, focusing our discussion on inflammatory aspects of cell death.
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In contrast to highly pro-inflammatory necrotic death modes such as necroptosis and pyroptosis, apoptosis and autophagy generally do not trigger an inflammatory response.
“In contrast to the highly pro-inflammatory necrotic types of cell death, such as necroptosis and pyroptosis, apoptosis and autophagy do not tend to trigger an inflammatory response166.”
From Inflammation and its resolution in atherosclerosis: mediators and therapeutic opportunities (2019) · cites this paper as [166]
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ATG12 Conjugation to ATG3 Regulates Mitochondrial Homeostasis and Cell Death
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Apoptotic cell clearance by bronchial epithelial cells critically influences airway inflammation
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Evidence of a Novel Event during Neuronal Death
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NEMO and RIP1 Control Cell Fate in Response to Extensive DNA Damage via TNF-α Feedforward Signaling
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Self-citationCellular IAPs inhibit a cryptic CD95-induced cell death by limiting RIP1 kinase recruitment
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Necrotic Death Pathway in FAS Receptor Signaling
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Control of Autophagic Cell Death by Caspase-10 in Multiple Myeloma
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A Perspective on Mammalian Caspases as Positive and Negative Regulators of Inflammation
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Resistance to Caspase-Independent Cell Death Requires Persistence of Intact Mitochondria
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Self-citationAdult Apaf-1-Deficient Mice Exhibit Male Infertility
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Bim Inhibits Autophagy by Recruiting Beclin 1 to Microtubules
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Necroptosis in Immunity and Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury
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Inflammasomes: far beyond inflammation
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RIPK-Dependent Necrosis and Its Regulation by Caspases: A Mystery in Five Acts
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Self-citationAutophagy in Protein and Organelle TurnoverPreprint
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Protective Roles for Caspase-8 and cFLIP in Adult Homeostasis
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Self-citationIt cuts both ways: reconciling the dual roles of caspase 8 in cell death and survival
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Self-citationAutophagy Suppresses RIP Kinase-Dependent Necrosis Enabling Survival to mTOR Inhibition
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TNF can activate RIPK3 and cause programmed necrosis in the absence of RIPK1
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Antigen-mediated T cell expansion regulated by parallel pathways of death
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Butylated hydroxyanisole is more than a reactive oxygen species scavenger
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Switch from Caspase-dependent to Caspase-independent Death during Heart Development
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Autophagy Gene Disruption Reveals a Non-vacuolar Cell Death Pathway in Dictyostelium
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cFLIP Regulates Skin Homeostasis and Protects against TNF-Induced Keratinocyte Apoptosis
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Autophagy functions in programmed cell death
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Chromatin modification of Apaf-1 restricts the apoptotic pathway in mature neurons
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Autophagy activity contributes to programmed cell death in<i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i>
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Targeting apoptosis in cancer therapy
Carneiro, B. A., & El‐Deiry, W. S. (2020) · Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1038/s41571-020-0341-y · Cited by 2,594 · see citing works
Inflammation and its resolution in atherosclerosis: mediators and therapeutic opportunities
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Essential versus accessory aspects of cell death: recommendations of the NCCD 2015
Galluzzi, L., Bravo-San Pedro, J. M., Vitale, I., Aaronson, S. A., Abrams, J. M., Adam, D., Alnemri, E. S., Altucci, L., Andrews, D., Annicchiarico-Petruzzelli, M., et al. (2015) · Cell Death & Differentiation · doi:10.1038/cdd.2014.137 · Cited by 1,002 · see citing works
“Taken together with the notion that the absence of either Ripk3, Casp8 or Fadd fails to rescue Ripk1 / mice from neonatal lethality,(180,185) these results pointed to the existence of a switch mechanism that regulates cell fate upon TNFR1 ligation.(204,205) Intriguingly, such switch may not operate in all cell types,…”
BackgroundSelf-citationApoptotic Caspases Prevent the Induction of Type I Interferons by Mitochondrial DNA
Rongvaux, A., Jackson, R., Harman, C. C. D., Li, T., West, A. P., de Zoete, M. R., Wu, Y., Yordy, B., Lakhani, S. A., Kuan, C.-Y., et al. (2014) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.11.037 · Cited by 847 · see citing works
“2008; Callus and Vaux, 2007; Tait et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialMitochondrial apoptosis: killing cancer using the enemy within
Lopez, J., & Tait, S. W. G. (2015) · British Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1038/bjc.2015.85 · Cited by 792 · see citing works
“Importantly, MOMP often leads to cell death irrespective of caspase activity (Tait et al, 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHSPB1 as a novel regulator of ferroptotic cancer cell death
Sun, X., Ou, Z., Xie, M., Kang, R., Fan, Y., Niu, X., Wang, H., Cao, L., & Tang, D. (2015) · Oncogene · doi:10.1038/onc.2015.32 · Cited by 666 · see citing works
Mitochondrial inner membrane permeabilisation enables mtDNA release during apoptosis
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“However, even in the absence of caspase activity, cells typically die onceMOMP has occurred, most likely due to progressive mitochondrial dysfunction (Lartigue et al., 2009; Tait et al., 2014).”
Self-citationA fate worse than death: apoptosis as an oncogenic process
Ichim, G., & Tait, S. W. G. (2016) · Nature Reviews Cancer · doi:10.1038/nrc.2016.58 · Cited by 451 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of neutrophils and NETosis in autoimmune and renal diseases
Gupta, S., & Kaplan, M. J. (2016) · Nature Reviews Nephrology · doi:10.1038/nrneph.2016.71 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
JNK-signaling: A multiplexing hub in programmed cell death
Dhanasekaran, D. N., & Reddy, E. P. (2017) · Genes & Cancer · doi:10.18632/genesandcancer.155 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
“In contrast to necroptosis, pyroptosis is a caspase-dependent programmed cell death pathway involving caspase 1 and/ or caspase 5 [25, 30].”
BackgroundInfluentialCell death mechanisms of plant-derived anticancer drugs: beyond apoptosis
Gali‐Muhtasib, H. U., Hmadi, R., Kareh, M., Tohmé, R., & Darwiche, N. (2015) · APOPTOSIS · doi:10.1007/s10495-015-1169-2 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Overcoming chemotherapy drug resistance by targeting inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs)
Rathore, R., McCallum, J. E., Varghese, E., Florea, A.-M., & Büsselberg, D. (2017) · APOPTOSIS · doi:10.1007/s10495-017-1375-1 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
“However, the mechanisms governing the initiation of necroptosis mediated cell death are so far unexplored in vivo and the repercussions of its potential pro-inflammatory nature have not been fully elucidated [34, 35].”
BackgroundWang, Y., Ning, X., Gao, P., Wu, S., Sha, M., Lv, M., Zhou, X., Gao, J., Fang, R., Meng, G., et al. (2017) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2017.02.011 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
“Caspase-dependent apoptosis is unique in its capacity to induce a noninflammatory type of cell death (Tait et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMechanisms for Modulating Anoikis Resistance in Cancer and the Relevance of Metabolic Reprogramming
Adeshakin, F. O., Adeshakin, A. O., Afolabi, L. O., Yan, D., Zhang, G., & Wan, X. (2021) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2021.626577 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
“Furthermore, non-apoptotic cell death includes entosis, methuosis, paraptosis, mitotopsis, parthanatos, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, netosis, necrosis, and autophagic cell death as mentioned in the previous studies (9, 10).”
BackgroundMitochondrial permeabilization engages NF-κB-dependent anti-tumour activity under caspase deficiency
Giampazolias, E., Zunino, B., Dhayade, S., Bock, F., Cloix, C., Cao, K., Roca, A., Lopez, J., Ichim, G., Proïcs, E., et al. (2017) · Nature Cell Biology · doi:10.1038/ncb3596 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Self-citationRole of Mitochondria in Radiation Responses: Epigenetic, Metabolic, and Signaling Impacts
Averbeck, D., & Rodriguez‐Lafrasse, C. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms222011047 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Caspase-8 as an Effector and Regulator of NLRP3 Inflammasome Signaling
Antonopoulos, C. H., Russo, H. M., Sanadi, C. E. E., Martin, B. N., Li, X., Kaiser, W. J., Mocarski, E. S., & Dubyak, G. (2015) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m115.652321 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
“Given its ubiquitous expression, caspase-8 contributes to the apoptosis or necroptosis of myeloid leukocytes in diverse models of microbial infection or pro-inflammatory stress (67, 68).”
BackgroundMechanisms of Action and Cell Death Associated with Clostridium perfringens Toxins
Navarro, M. A., McClane, B. A., & Uzal, F. A. (2018) · Toxins · doi:10.3390/toxins10050212 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
The Mitochondrion as an Emerging Therapeutic Target in Cancer
Roth, K. G., Mambetsariev, I., Kulkarni, P., & Salgia, R. (2019) · Trends in Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2019.06.009 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Thompson, J. E. (2018) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000001277 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
“Several mechanisms of cellular death have been identified that include apoptosis, necroptosis, pyroptosis, necrosis, and autophagic cell death.(239) Understanding the cell-death mechanism is important to design intervention strategies to ameliorate the detrimental effects of PM on human health.”
BackgroundParaptosis in the anti-cancer arsenal of natural products
Lee, D., Kim, I. Y., Saha, S., & Choi, K. S. (2016) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2016.01.003 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Pyroptosis Plays a Role in Osteoarthritis
An, S., Hu, H., Li, Y., & Hu, Y. (2020) · Aging and Disease · doi:10.14336/ad.2019.1127 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
“Cell death is also a characteristic of abnormal pathological responses to harmful stimuli, such as physical damage and pathogens [1].”
BackgroundJung, S., Choe, S., Woo, H., Jeong, H., An, H.-K., Moon, H., Ryu, H. Y., Yeo, B. K., Lee, Y. W., Choi, H., et al. (2020) · Autophagy · doi:10.1080/15548627.2019.1630222 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
“Recent progress in the field of cell death indicates the importance of the modes of programmed cell death (PCD) other than apoptosis, such as autophagic cell death (ACD) or necroptosis in human physiology and diseases [3].”
BackgroundRoles of neutrophil granule proteins in orchestrating inflammation and immunity
Othman, A., Sekheri, M., & Filep, J. G. (2021) · FEBS Journal · doi:10.1111/febs.15803 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Recent insights into cell death and autophagy
Fitzwalter, B. E., & Thorburn, A. M. (2015) · FEBS Journal · doi:10.1111/febs.13515 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Bacterial Pathogens versus Autophagy: Implications for Therapeutic Interventions
Kimmey, J. M., & Stallings, C. L. (2016) · Trends in Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2016.10.008 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“Themechanism bywhich an infected cell dies can have amajor impact on immune responses because DAMPs released from dying cells will trigger inflammation [137].”
BackgroundCell Death in the Developing Brain after Hypoxia-Ischemia
Thornton, C., Leaw, B., Mallard, C. E., Nair, S., Jinnai, M., & Hagberg, H. (2017) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2017.00248 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Apoptosis, Necrosis, and Necroptosis in the Gut and IntestinalHomeostasis
Negroni, A., Cucchiara, S., & Stronati, L. (2015) · Mediators of Inflammation · doi:10.1155/2015/250762 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“Apoptosis has long been considered the only form of regulated cell death, while the existence of additional forms of controlled cell death is now well established [24, 25].”
BackgroundTargeting Ferroptosis against Ischemia/Reperfusion Cardiac Injury
Lillo‐Moya, J., Rojas-Solé, C., Muñoz-Salamanca, D., Panieri, E., Saso, L., & Rodrigo, R. (2021) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox10050667 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
“This cell death pathway, unlike other cell death pathways such as apoptosis, does not present a silent inflammatory response [91].”
BackgroundEndoplasmic reticulum stress induces ligand-independent TNFR1-mediated necroptosis in L929 cells
Saveljeva, S., Laughlin, S. L. M., Vandenabeele, P., Samali, A., & Bertrand, M. J. M. (2015) · Cell Death and Disease · doi:10.1038/cddis.2014.548 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
“the only form of regulated cell death, but existence of additional forms of controlled cell death is nowwell established.(32,33) These can be triggered independently of apoptosis induction or as back-up safety mechanisms in situations where the apoptotic machinery does not operate properly, such as a result of genetic…”
BackgroundZielinska, E., Zauszkiewicz–Pawlak, A., Wójcik, M., & Inkielewicz‐Stępniak, I. (2017) · Oncotarget · doi:10.18632/oncotarget.22563 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Necroptosis Execution Is Mediated by Plasma Membrane Nanopores Independent of Calcium
Ros, U., Peña‐Blanco, A., Hänggi, K., Kunzendorf, U., Krautwald, S., Wong, W. W.-L., & García‐Sáez, A. J. (2017) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2017.03.024 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
“Experimentally, it is induced by a combination of TNF-a treatment with molecules that sensitize its activity such as second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (Smac) mimetics, inhibitors of RNA, or protein synthesis and caspase inhibitors (Tait et al., 2014; Wallach et al., 2016).”
Implication of ferroptosis in aging
Mazhar, M., Din, A. U., Ali, H., Yang, G., Ren, W., Wang, L., Fan, X., & Yang, S. (2021) · Cell Death Discovery · doi:10.1038/s41420-021-00553-6 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“Besides these modes of cell death, non-apoptotic mechanisms also exist [22] and that is ferroptosis.”
BackgroundPathophysiological role of different tubular epithelial cell death modes in acute kidney injury
Sancho-Martínez, S. M., López-Novoa, J. M., & López-Hernández, F. J. (2015) · Clinical Kidney Journal · doi:10.1093/ckj/sfv069 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Carotenoids in Cancer Apoptosis—The Road from Bench to Bedside and Back
Koklesová, L., Líšková, A., Samec, M., Buhrmann, C., Samuel, S. M., Varghese, E., Ashrafizadeh, M., Najafi, M., Shakibaei, M., Büsselberg, D., et al. (2020) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers12092425 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“Programmed cell death (PCD) represents an important concept, which is defined as a genetically regulated cascade leading to controlled cell removal.”
BackgroundInfluentialMitochondria and Inflammation: Cell Death Heats Up
Vringer, E., & Tait, S. W. G. (2019) · Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.3389/fcell.2019.00100 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, cells usually die irrespective of caspase activation upon MOMP, demarcating it as a point of no return (Tait et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHe, B., Shi, Y., Liang, Y., Yang, A., Fan, Z., Yuan, L., Zou, X., Chang, X. Y., Zhang, H., Wang, X., et al. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-04700-z · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Oxidants, Antioxidants and Thiol Redox Switches in the Control of Regulated Cell Death Pathways
Benhar, M. (2020) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox9040309 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“In the last two decades, additional forms of RCD have been discovered and characterized [15,16].”
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Background
- Authors
- Tait, S. W. G., Ichim, G., & Green, D. R.
- Affiliations
- Cancer Research UK Scotland Institute (GB)
- St. Jude Children's Research Hospital (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Cell Science
- Publisher
- The Company of Biologists
- Published
- 2014-05-15
- Volume
- 127
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 2135-2144
- ISSN
- 0021-9533 (ISSN-L)
- 1477-9137
- PMC
- PMC4021468
- OpenAlex
- W2021358525
- Cited by
- 366
- References
- 130
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 48 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 5
- FWCI
- 3.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Cell Science (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam) (submittedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/K008374/1)
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (R01GM096208)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01AI044828)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Cell death mechanisms and regulation
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Inflammasome and immune disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Autophagy in Disease and Therapy
- Keywords
- non-apoptotic cell death, programmed cell death, necroptosis, pyroptosis, autophagic cell death, caspase-independent cell death, apoptosis, inflammation, immune system development
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Autophagy, Humans, Cell Death, Apoptosis
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