Towards Continual Reinforcement Learning: A Review and Perspectives
Open accessAbstract
In this article, we aim to provide a literature review of different formulations and approaches to continual reinforcement learning (RL), also known as lifelong or non-stationary RL. We begin by discussing our perspective on why RL is a natural fit for studying continual learning. We then provide a taxonomy of different continual RL formulations by mathematically characterizing two key properties of non-stationarity, namely, the scope and driver non-stationarity. This offers a unified view of various formulations. Next, we review and present a taxonomy of continual RL approaches. We go on to discuss evaluation of continual RL agents, providing an overview of benchmarks used in the literature and important metrics for understanding agent performance. Finally, we highlight open problems and challenges in bridging the gap between the current state of continual RL and findings in neuroscience. While still in its early days, the study of continual RL has the promise to develop better incremental reinforcement learners that can function in increasingly realistic applications where non-stationarity plays a vital role. These include applications such as those in the fields of healthcare, education, logistics, and robotics.
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Affordance theory in RL holds that the environment constrains and suggests possible actions, and agents learn which actions are afforded in each situation.
“Another line develops affordance theory in RL, where the environment constrains and suggests possible actions (Graves et al., 2022; Khetarpal et al., 2020). Rather than treating all actions as always available, agents learn which are afforded in each situation, mirroring selective, skillful responses in enactive perception.”
From Toward Enactive Artificial Intelligence (2026) · cites this paper as Khetarpal et al., 2020
In “The Agent-Environment Boundary” (page unavailable), the review says the space of affordances may change over time and may emerge through agent–environment interaction. Section 2.2 also notes that action availability can change over time. These passages support the idea that possible actions depend on the situation, but they do not say that the environment suggests actions or that agents learn which actions are afforded in each situation. (LLM, conf=0.76)
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- Authors
- Khetarpal, K., Riemer, M., Rish, I., & Precup, D.
- Affiliations
- McGill University (CA)
- Mila - Quebec Artificial Intelligence Institute (CA)
- Venue
- Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research
- Publisher
- AI Access Foundation
- Published
- 2022-12-22
- Volume
- 75
- Pages
- 1401-1476
- ISSN
- 1076-9757 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3117215073
- Cited by
- 224
- References
- 474
- Citations by year
- 2026: 37 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 72 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 22
- FWCI
- 13.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research
- Canada Excellence Research Chairs, Government of Canada
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Reinforcement Learning in Robotics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Domain Adaptation and Few-Shot Learning
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Advanced Bandit Algorithms Research
- Keywords
- continual reinforcement learning, lifelong learning, incremental learning
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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