Finding Web-Based Anxiety Interventions on the World Wide Web: A Scoping Review
Open accessAbstract
Background: One relatively new and increasingly popular approach of increasing access to treatment is Web-based intervention programs. The advantage of Web-based approaches is the accessibility, affordability, and anonymity of potentially evidence-based treatment. Despite much research evidence on the effectiveness of Web-based interventions for anxiety found in the literature, little is known about what is publically available for potential consumers on the Web. Objective: Our aim was to explore what a consumer searching the Web for Web-based intervention options for anxiety-related issues might find. The objectives were to identify currently publically available Web-based intervention programs for anxiety and to synthesize and review these in terms of (1) website characteristics such as credibility and accessibility; (2) intervention program characteristics such as intervention focus, design, and presentation modes; (3) therapeutic elements employed; and (4) published evidence of efficacy. Methods: Web keyword searches were carried out on three major search engines (Google, Bing, and Yahoo—UK platforms). For each search, the first 25 hyperlinks were screened for eligible programs. Included were programs that were designed for anxiety symptoms, currently publically accessible on the Web, had an online component, a structured treatment plan, and were available in English. Data were extracted for website characteristics, program characteristics, therapeutic characteristics, as well as empirical evidence. Programs were also evaluated using a 16-point rating tool. Results: The search resulted in 34 programs that were eligible for review. A wide variety of programs for anxiety, including specific anxiety disorders, and anxiety in combination with stress, depression, or anger were identified and based predominantly on cognitive behavioral therapy techniques. The majority of websites were rated as credible, secure, and free of advertisement. The majority required users to register and/or to pay a program access fee. Half of the programs offered some form of paid therapist or professional support. Programs varied in treatment length and number of modules and employed a variety of presentation modes. Relatively few programs had published research evidence of the intervention’s efficacy. Conclusions: This review represents a snapshot of available Web-based intervention programs for anxiety that could be found by consumers in March 2015. The consumer is confronted with a diversity of programs, which makes it difficult to identify an appropriate program. Limited reports and existence of empirical evidence for efficacy make it even more challenging to identify credible and reliable programs. This highlights the need for consistent guidelines and standards on developing, providing, and evaluating Web-based interventions and platforms with reliable up-to-date information for professionals and consumers about the characteristics, quality, and accessibility of Web-based interventions.
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The use of a scoring system to evaluate and compare programs was based on a framework for evaluating internet-based interventions, as adapted in subsequent research.
“The use of a scoring system to evaluate and compare programs was based on a framework for evaluating internet-based interventions [40], as adapted in subsequent research [15,16].”
From Web-Based Interventions to Help Australian Adults Address Depression, Anxiety, Suicidal Ideation, and General Mental Well-being: Scoping Review (2022) · cites this paper as [16]
The Methods’ Program Evaluation section says the authors adapted Renton et al.’s scoring system to rate web-based interventions. The separate Data Extraction section says a framework for evaluating and reporting internet intervention studies informed the extraction categories. Our copy does not say that the scoring system itself was based on that framework. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe program evaluation scoring system was similar to Ashford et al.
“A program evaluation scoring system was adapted from previously published guidelines for evaluating and reporting web-based intervention research [40], similar to Ashford et al [16].”
From Web-Based Interventions to Help Australian Adults Address Depression, Anxiety, Suicidal Ideation, and General Mental Well-being: Scoping Review (2022) · cites this paper as [16]
The framework used for the extraction tool has been used in 2 recent scoping reviews examining web-based interventions for depression and anxiety.
“This framework has been used in 2 recent scoping reviews examining web-based interventions for depression [15] and anxiety [16].”
From Web-Based Interventions to Help Australian Adults Address Depression, Anxiety, Suicidal Ideation, and General Mental Well-being: Scoping Review (2022) · cites this paper as [16]
Ashford et al identified 34 web-based programs for anxiety, with only 17 having published evidence of efficacy.
“the review of programs for anxiety by Ashford et al [16] identified 34 programs, with only 17 having published evidence of efficacy.”
From Web-Based Interventions to Help Australian Adults Address Depression, Anxiety, Suicidal Ideation, and General Mental Well-being: Scoping Review (2022) · cites this paper as [16]
Past reviews found that 50% of programs addressing anxiety had undergone empirical evaluation and 38% of programs addressing depression had been evaluated via an RCT (level II studies).
“This is similar to past reviews, which found that 50% of the programs addressing anxiety had undergone empirical evaluation [16], and 38% of programs addressing depression had been evaluated via an RCT (ie, level II studies) [15].”
From Web-Based Interventions to Help Australian Adults Address Depression, Anxiety, Suicidal Ideation, and General Mental Well-being: Scoping Review (2022) · cites this paper as [16]
The number of programs in this review is substantially lower than the 32 programs for depression and the 34 programs for anxiety identified by Renton et al and Ashford et al, respectively.
“This is substantially lower than the 32 programs for depression and the 34 programs for anxiety identified by Renton et al [15] and Ashford et al [16], respectively.”
From Web-Based Interventions to Help Australian Adults Address Depression, Anxiety, Suicidal Ideation, and General Mental Well-being: Scoping Review (2022) · cites this paper as [16]
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Hickie, I., Davenport, T., Luscombe, G., Moore, M., Griffiths, K., & Christensen, H. (2010) · Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2010.tb03690.x · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Aydos, L., Titov, N., & Andrews, G. (2009) · Australasian Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/10398560903284943 · Cited by 49 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…#28, #29, #30) This Way Up Self-help (#31, #32) Panic: - 1 RCT a [85] - Pre-post intervention trial without comparison group [86] Social phobia: - 5 RCTs a [87-91] - Implementation study [92] - Cost-effectiveness, acceptability, and follow-up analysis [93] This Way Up School (#33, #34) Anxiety”
Helgadóttir, F. D., Menzies, R. G., Onslow, M., Packman, A., & O'Brian, S. (2009) · Behaviour Change · doi:10.1375/bech.26.4.254 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
MacGregor, A. D., Hayward, L., Peck, D. F., & Wilkes, P. (2009) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s135246580800492x · Cited by 43 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The Stress and Anxiety Manager (#4) Website: not specified; Beacon b : not reviewed CBT 7 Step Self Help Course (#5) - Acceptability study [54] - Pre-post intervention pilot [55] - Case studies without comparison group [56] - Implementation study [57] - 2 - Implementation [61] - Predictors of…”
AL-Asadi, A. M., Klein, B., & Meyer, D. (2014) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.3513 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Ritterband, L. M., Cox, D. J., Gordon, T. L., Borowitz, S. M., Kovatchev, B. P., Walker, L. S., & Sutphen, J. L. (2006) · Children's Health Care · doi:10.1207/s15326888chc3501_5 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Is internet treatment for depressive and anxiety disorders ready for prime time?
Andrews, G., & Titov, N. (2010) · The Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2010.tb03693.x · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Harrison, A. M., & Goozee, R. (2014) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.3109/09638237.2013.869575 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Taking computerized CBT beyond primary care.
Learmonth, D., & Rai, S. (2008) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466507x248599 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Characteristics of E-Therapy Web Sites
Recupero, P. R., & Rainey, S. E. (2006) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v67n0915 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The Feasibility and Effectiveness of Computer-Guided CBT (FearFighter) in a Rural Area
Hayward, L., MacGregor, A. D., Peck, D. F., & Wilkes, P. (2007) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465807003670 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Help-seeking patterns of anxiety-disordered individuals in the general population
Pollard, C. A., Henderson, J. G., Frank, M. A., & Margolis, R. B. (1989) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/0887-6185(89)90007-8 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Pragmatic evaluation of the viability of CCBT self‐help for depression in higher education
Mitchell, N., & Dunn, K. (2007) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/14733140701565987 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The Climate Panic program: an open trial of Internet-based treatment for panic disorder
Wims, E., Titov, N., & Andrews, G. (2008) · E-Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.7790/ejap.v4i2.134 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Mureşan, V., Montgomery, G. H., & David, D. (2012) · Journal of Technology in Human Services · doi:10.1080/15228835.2011.653290 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
An open trial in the NHS of Blues Begone®: a new home based computerized CBT program
Purves, D. G., Bennett, M., & Wellman, N. (2009) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465809990282 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
What price a diagnosis? Targeting patients for diabetic screening
Jiwa, M., Freeman, J., Clayton, C. K., Bundy, J. D., & Wilson, P. (2004) · eSpace (Curtin University) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- [16]Fox S Rainie L The Online Health Care Revolultion 2000 2015-11-14 http://www.pewinternet.org/2000/11/26/the-online-health-care-revolution/ 12448136
- [33]Heinlen K Welfel E The nature, scope, and ethics of psychologists' e-therapy web sites: What consumers find when surfing the Web Psychother Theory Res Pract Train 2003 40 1 112 124 10.1037/0033-3204.40.1/2.112 · DOI
- [56]Gega L Marks I Mataix-Cols D Computer-aided CBT self-help for anxiety and depressive disorders: Experience of a London clinic and future directions J Clin Psychol 2004 02 60 2 147 157 10.1002/jclp.10241 14724922 14724922 · DOI · Paper page
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Nicolaidou, I. A., Stavrou, E., & Leonidou, G. (2021) · JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting · doi:10.2196/27958 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Clunne, S. J., Ryan, B., Hill, A. J., Brandenburg, C., & Kneebone, I. (2018) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.9864 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Vasiliadis, H., Spagnolo, J., & LESAGE, A. D. (2021) · Healthcare policy · doi:10.12927/hcpol.2021.26437 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Skaczkowski, G., van der Kruk, S., Loxton, S., Hughes-Barton, D., Howell, C., Turnbull, D., Jensen, N., Smout, M., & Gunn, K. (2022) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/31018 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“A total of 2 existing international scoping reviews summarize the characteristics of web-based interventions available for the treatment of depression in Canada in 2014 [15] and anxiety in the United Kingdom in 2016 [16].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialReitegger, F., Peras, I., Wright, M., & Gasteiger‐Klicpera, B. (2024) · Adolescent Research Review · doi:10.1007/s40894-024-00237-z · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Pan, J., Thew, G. R., & Clark, D. M. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.04.100 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Health Information on Firefighter Websites: Structured Analysis
Hu, M., MacDermid, J. C., Killip, S. C., Lomotan, M., & FIREWELL (2018) · Interactive Journal of Medical Research · doi:10.2196/ijmr.9369 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Khazaeili, M., Hajebi, M. Z., Mohamadkhani, P., & Mirzahoseini, H. (2019) · Practice in Clinical Psychology · doi:10.32598/jpcp.7.2.137 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Pan, J. (2023) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/48437 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Brazeau, B. W., Cunningham, J. A., & Hodgins, D. C. (2026) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/83430
Senanayake, A., & Liang, Z. (2026) · ACM International Conference on Bioinformatics, Computational Biology, and Health Informatics (ACM-BCB) · doi:10.1145/3807503.3819474
- Authors
- Ashford, M. T., Olander, E. K., & Ayers, S.
- Affiliations
- City, University of London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Ashford, Miriam Thiel
- Venue
- JMIR Mental Health
- Publisher
- JMIR Publications Inc.
- Published
- 2016-06-01
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- e14
- ISSN
- 2368-7959 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4936762
- OpenAlex
- W2419371092
- Cited by
- 11
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2
- FWCI
- 0.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- JMIR Mental Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- City Research Online (City University London) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- online intervention, anxiety disorders, website credibility, program quality, cognitive behavioral therapy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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