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Measurement of Trust in Automation: A Narrative Review and Reference Guide
Abstract
With the rise of automated and autonomous agents, research examining Trust in Automation (TiA) has attracted considerable attention over the last few decades. Trust is a rich and complex construct which has sparked a multitude of measures and approaches to study and understand it. This comprehensive narrative review addresses known methods that have been used to capture TiA. We examined measurements deployed in existing empirical works, categorized those measures into self-report, behavioral, and physiological indices, and examined them within the context of an existing model of trust. The resulting work provides a reference guide for researchers, providing a list of available TiA measurement methods along with the model-derived constructs that they capture including judgments of trustworthiness, trust attitudes, and trusting behaviors. The article concludes with recommendations on how to improve the current state of TiA measurement.
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Kohn et al. (2021) describe 16 different types of self-report methods used in trust in automation.
“Kohn et al. (2021) describe 16 different types of self-report methods used in trust in automation.”
From Trust, distrust, and appropriate reliance in (X)AI: A conceptual clarification of user trust and survey of its empirical evaluation (2025) · cites this paper as Kohn et al. (2021)
Frequently, custom self-report scales are used for assessing trust in automation.
“Frequently, custom self-report scales are used for assessing trust in automation (Kohn et al., 2021).”
From Trust, distrust, and appropriate reliance in (X)AI: A conceptual clarification of user trust and survey of its empirical evaluation (2025) · cites this paper as Kohn et al., 2021
Kohn et al. (2021) review different measurements of trust in automation and describe three categories: self-report, physiological, and behavioral.
“In Kohn et al. (2021) the authors give a review of different measurements of trust in automation.They describe three categories in which these methods can be placed: self-report, physiological, and behavioral.”
From Trust, distrust, and appropriate reliance in (X)AI: A conceptual clarification of user trust and survey of its empirical evaluation (2025) · cites this paper as Kohn et al. (2021)
The Checklist for Trust between People and Automation (Jian, Bisantz, & Drury, 2000) is the most frequently used scale for assessing trust in automation.
“Of these, the Checklist for Trust between People and Automation (Jian, Bisantz, & Drury, 2000) is the most frequently used (Kohn et al., 2021).”
From Trust, distrust, and appropriate reliance in (X)AI: A conceptual clarification of user trust and survey of its empirical evaluation (2025) · cites this paper as Kohn et al., 2021
Kohn et al. (2021) note that notwithstanding evidence for the two-dimensional conceptualisation, uni-dimensional scales are the common form for assessing trust in automation.
“Kohn et al. (2021) note, however, that notwithstanding the evidence for the two-dimensional conceptualisation, uni-dimensional scales are the common form for assessing trust in automation (Kohn et al., 2021).”
From Trust, distrust, and appropriate reliance in (X)AI: A conceptual clarification of user trust and survey of its empirical evaluation (2025) · cites this paper as Kohn et al. (2021)
Kohn et al. (2021) highlight that researchers either state that they developed their own way of measuring trust, or they do not cite any source for their method.
“Kohn et al. (2021) highlight that researchers either state that they developed their own way of measuring trust, or they do not cite any source for their method.”
From Trust, distrust, and appropriate reliance in (X)AI: A conceptual clarification of user trust and survey of its empirical evaluation (2025) · cites this paper as Kohn et al. (2021)
Examples identifying the merit of considering trust and distrust as separate dimensions can be found across different subfields of human-technology interaction.
“Some examples identifying the merit of considering trust and distrust as separate dimensions, which can be found across different subfields of human-technology interaction (Kohn et al., 2021;Harrison McKnight & Chervany, 2001;McKnight et al., 2004;Benamati et al., 2006;Ou & Sia, 2010;Fang, Guo, & Zhang, 2015;Thielsch, Meeßen, & Hertel, 2018).”
From Trust, distrust, and appropriate reliance in (X)AI: A conceptual clarification of user trust and survey of its empirical evaluation (2025) · cites this paper as Kohn et al., 2021
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Citations
Cites
Humans and automation: Use, misuse, disuse, abuse
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“The current review focuses on the operator-automation dyad, a single operator supervising one or more automated agents (Parasuraman and Riley, 1997; Parasuraman, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialOxytocin increases trust in humans
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“Others have shown that high reliance can indicate a state of high or over-trust which is known as complacency (Parasuraman et al., 2008; Parasuraman and Manzey, 2010).”
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“In these situations, reliance is measured by the rate of detection of automation failures (Parasuraman et al., 1993).”
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“Other surveys focus on trustworthiness as a singular construct without component factors (Lee and Moray, 1992, 1994).”
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“There is a wide range of disposition components that may be captured using self-report TiA measures, including the following: operators’ tendency to be complacent toward automation (Automation-Induced Complacency Potential Rating Scale, Singh et al., 1993); operators’ high expectations for the automation (Perfect Auto…”
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Nave, G., Camerer, C., & McCullough, M. (2015) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691615600138 · Cited by 316 · cited 1×
“…oxytocin methodological and experimental approach due to reproducibility difficulties and the exploratory nature of this work (Christensen et al., 2014; Nave et al., 2015; Mierop et al., 2020), a validated hormone-based measure would present a third broad type of physiological trust measurement.”
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Chiou, E. K., & Lee, J. D. (2023) · Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/00187208211009995 · Cited by 301 · cited 1×
“…TiA and its sibling human-robot trust (See: Lee and See, 2004; Hancock et al., 2011; Hoff and Bashir, 2015; Schaefer, 2016; de Visser et al., 2020; Chiou and Lee, 2021), these reviews do not thoroughly review or discuss trust measures nor offer guidance about when or how different trust…”
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“High trust results in longer reaction times because over-reliance on the automation causes the operator to be unprepared to respond, requiring greater mental effort and duration to switch tasks (Beller et al., 2013; Helldin et al., 2013; Körber et al., 2018).”
BackgroundImpact of robot failures and feedback on real-time trust
Desai, M., Kaniarasu, P., Medvedev, M., Steinfeld, A., & Yanco, H. (2013) · 2013 8th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1109/hri.2013.6483596 · Cited by 234
Evaluating Effects of User Experience and System Transparency on Trust in Automation
Yang, X. J., Unhelkar, V. V., Li, K., & Shah, J. A. (2017) · Proceedings of the 2017 ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/2909824.3020230 · Cited by 208
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Wiegmann, D. A., Rich, A., & Zhang, H. (2001) · Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science · doi:10.1080/14639220110110306 · Cited by 176
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Hancock, P. A. (2017) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2016.1190035 · Cited by 162
Brains or Beauty: How to Engender Trust in User-Agent Interactions
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“…oxytocin methodological and experimental approach due to reproducibility difficulties and the exploratory nature of this work (Christensen et al., 2014; Nave et al., 2015; Mierop et al., 2020), a validated hormone-based measure would present a third broad type of physiological trust measurement.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kohn, S. C., de Visser, E. J., Wiese, E., Lee, Y.-C., & Shaw, T. H.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2021-10-19
- Volume
- 12
- ISSN
- 1664-1078
- PMC
- PMC8562383
- Cited by
- 315
- References
- 28
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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