Alzheimer’s disease as type 3 diabetes: understanding the link and implications

Kciuk, Mateusz; Kruczkowska, Weronika; Gałęziewska, Julia; Wanke, Katarzyna; Kałuzińska-Kołat, Żaneta; Aleksandrowicz, Marta; Kontek, Renata

doi:10.3390/ijms252211955

Cited by 98Alzheimer's disease research and treatmentsDementia and Cognitive Impairment ResearchNeuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms

Alzheimer’s disease as type 3 diabetes: understanding the link and implications

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Kciuk, Mateusz, Kruczkowska, Weronika, Gałęziewska, Julia, Wanke, Katarzyna, Kałuzińska-Kołat, Żaneta, Aleksandrowicz, Marta, Kontek, Renata·2024·International Journal of Molecular Sciences

DOI 10.3390/ijms252211955PMC PMC11593477

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Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are two prevalent conditions that present considerable public health issue in aging populations worldwide. Recent research has proposed a novel conceptualization of AD as “type 3 diabetes”, highlighting the critical roles of insulin resistance and impaired glucose metabolism in the pathogenesis of the disease. This article examines the implications of this association, exploring potential new avenues for treatment and preventive strategies for AD. Key evidence linking diabetes to AD emphasizes critical metabolic processes that contribute to neurodegeneration, including inflammation, oxidative stress, and alterations in insulin signaling pathways. By framing AD within this metabolic context, we can enhance our understanding of its etiology, which in turn may influence early diagnosis, treatment plans, and preventive measures. Understanding AD as a manifestation of diabetes opens up the possibility of employing novel therapeutic strategies that incorporate lifestyle modifications and the use of antidiabetic medications to mitigate cognitive decline. This integrated approach has the potential to improve patient outcomes and deepen our comprehension of the intricate relationship between neurodegenerative diseases and metabolic disorders.

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People with Alzheimer disease or other dementias are more likely to develop diabetes than those without it.
“People with Alzheimer disease or other dementias are more likely to develop diabetes than those without it; this possible link emphasizes critical metabolic processes that contribute to neurodegeneration (21).”
From 13. Older Adults: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2026 (2026) · cites this paper as [21]
The Introduction and section 4.1 discuss whether people with diabetes are more likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease or other dementias—the reverse of the claimed direction. A search for diabetes developing after an Alzheimer’s or dementia diagnosis found no passage addressing that comparison. The paper’s discussion of shared metabolic processes does not establish the claimed risk. (LLM, conf=0.76)
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Cao, F., Yang, F., Li, J., Guo, W., Zhang, C., Gao, F., Sun, X., Zhou, Y., & Zhang, W. (2024) · Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome · doi:10.1186/s13098-024-01346-4 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Association between blood pressure and Alzheimer disease measured up to 27 years prior to diagnosis: the HUNT Study
Gabin, J. M., Tambs, K., Saltvedt, I. T., Sund, E. R., & Holmen, J. (2017) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-017-0262-x · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Aggregation and structure of amyloid β-protein
Ono, K., & Watanabe‐Nakayama, T. (2021) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2021.105208 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus as a Risk Factor for Alzheimer’s Disease: Review and Meta-Analysis
Athanasaki, A., Melanis, K., Tsantzali, I., Stefanou, M., Ntymenou, S., Paraskevas, S. G., Κalamatianos, T., Boutati, E. I., Lambadiari, V., Voumvourakis, K. I., et al. (2022) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines10040778 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
The Microbiota–Gut–Brain Axis in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Review of Taxonomic Alterations and Potential Avenues for Interventions
Murray, E. R., Kemp, M., & Nguyen, T. T. (2022) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acac008 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Astrocytes as a Therapeutic Target in Alzheimer’s Disease–Comprehensive Review and Recent Developments
Rodríguez-Giraldo, M., González-Reyes, R., Ramírez-Guerrero, S., Bonilla-Trilleras, C. E., Guardo-Maya, S., & Nava-Mesa, M. O. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms232113630 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Cross-disease analysis of Alzheimer’s disease and type-2 Diabetes highlights the role of autophagy in the pathophysiology of two highly comorbid diseases
Caberlotto, L., Nguyen, T.-P., Lauria, M., Priami, C., Rimondini, R., Maioli, S., Cedazo-Mı́nguez, Á., Sita, G., Morroni, F., Corsi, M., et al. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-39828-5 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Donanemab for Alzheimer’s Disease: A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials
Rashad, A., Rasool, A., Shaheryar, M., Sarfraz, A., Sarfraz, Z., Robles‐Velasco, K., & Chérrez-Ojeda, I. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11010032 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Alzheimer’s disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus: Pathophysiologic and pharmacotherapeutics links
Rojas, M., Chávez-Castillo, M., Bautista, J., Ortega, Á., Nava, M., Salazar, J. J., Díaz-Camargo, E. A., Medina, O., Rojas, J., & Bermúdez, V. (2021) · World Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.4239/wjd.v12.i6.745 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Interactions Between Gut Microbiota and Acute Restraint Stress in Peripheral Structures of the Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis and the Intestine of Male Mice
Vagnerová, K., Vodička, M., Hermanová, P. P., Ergang, P., Šrůtková, D., Klusoňová, P., Balounová, K., Hudcovic, T., & Pácha, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02655 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Obesity and Alzheimer's disease, does the obesity paradox really exist? A magnetic resonance imaging study
Pegueroles, J., Initiative, A. D. N., Jiménez, A., Vilaplana, E., Montal, V., Carmona‐Iragui, M., Pané, A., Alcolea, D. A., Videla, L., Casajoana, A., et al. (2018) · Oncotarget · doi:10.18632/oncotarget.26162 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Liraglutide and its Neuroprotective Properties—Focus on Possible Biochemical Mechanisms in Alzheimer’s Disease and Cerebral Ischemic Events
Wiciński, M., Socha, M. W., Malinowski, B., Wódkiewicz, E., Walczak, M., Górski, K. M., Słupski, M., & Pawlak-Osińska, K. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20051050 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
The Role of MAPT in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Genetics, Mechanisms and Therapy
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Pneumonia-induced endothelial amyloids reduce dendritic spine density in brain neurons
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Obesity as a Risk Factor for Alzheimer’s Disease: Implication of Leptin and Glutamate
Lloret, A., Monllor, P., Esteve, D., Cervera‐Ferri, A., & Lloret, M.-Á. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00508 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Liraglutide Protects Against Brain Amyloid-β1–42 Accumulation in Female Mice with Early Alzheimer’s Disease-Like Pathology by Partially Rescuing Oxidative/Nitrosative Stress and Inflammation
Duarte, A. I., Candeias, E., Alves, I. N., Mena, D., da Silva, D. F., Machado, N. J., Campos, E. J., Santos, M. S., Oliveira, C. R., & Moreira, P. I. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21051746 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Dulaglutide ameliorates STZ induced AD-like impairment of learning and memory ability by modulating hyperphosphorylation of tau and NFs through GSK3β
Zhou, M. L., Chen, S., Peng, P., Gu, Z., Yu, J., Zhao, G., & Deng, Y. (2019) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.01.103 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Step by step: towards a better understanding of the genetic architecture of Alzheimer’s disease
Lambert, J.-C., Ramirez, A., Grenier-Boley, B., & Bellenguez, C. (2023) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-023-02076-1 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Use of Vitamin E and C Supplements for the Prevention of Cognitive Decline
Basambombo, L. L., Carmichael, P., Côté, S., & Laurin, D. (2016) · Annals of Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1177/1060028016673072 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Dose- and Time-Dependent Association of Smoking and Its Cessation with Glycemic Control and Insulin Resistance in Male Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: The Fukuoka Diabetes Registry
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Obesity and risk for its comorbidities diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia in Japanese individuals aged 65 years
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Blood Pressure Levels and Risks of Dementia: a Nationwide Study of 4.5 Million People
Lee, C. J., Lee, J.-Y., Han, K., Kim, D. H., Cho, H., Kim, K. J., Kang, E. S., Cha, B.-S., Lee, Y., & Park, S. (2021) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.121.17283 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Effects of liraglutide on neurodegeneration, blood flow and cognition in Alzheimer´s disease - protocol for a controlled, randomized double-blinded trial.
Egefjord, L., Gejl, M., Møller, A., Brændgaard, H., Gottrup, H., Antropova, O., Møller, N., Poulsen, H. E., GJEDDE, A. H., Brock, B., et al. (2012) · PubMed · Cited by 80 · see citing works
The Role of Diet and Gut Microbiota in Alzheimer’s Disease
Dissanayaka, D. M. S., Jayasena, V., Rainey‐Smith, S. R., Martins, R. N., & Fernando, W. M. A. D. B. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16030412 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Neurodegeneration in type 2 diabetes: Alzheimer's as a case study
Madhusudhanan, J., Suresh, G., & Devanathan, V. (2020) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.1577 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Cigarette Smoking, Diabetes, and Diabetes Complications: Call for Urgent Action
Zhu, P., Pan, X., Sheng, L., Chen, H., & Pan, A. (2017) · Current Diabetes Reports · doi:10.1007/s11892-017-0903-2 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Intranasal insulin modulates cerebrospinal fluid markers of neuroinflammation in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease: a randomized trial
Kellar, D., Register, T. C., Lockhart, S. N., Aisen, P. S. S., Raman, R., Rissman, R. A., Brewer, J. B., & Craft, S. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-05165-3 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Soluble amyloid beta-containing aggregates are present throughout the brain at early stages of Alzheimer’s disease
Sideris, D. I., Danial, J. S. H., Emin, D., Ruggeri, F. S., Xia, Z., Zhang, Y. P., Lobanova, E., Dakin, H., De, S., Miller, A., et al. (2021) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcab147 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
State of the science on brain insulin resistance and cognitive decline due to Alzheimer's disease
Rhea, E. M., Leclerc, M., Yassine, H. N., Capuano, A. W., Tong, H., Petyuk, V. A., Macauley, S. L., Fioramonti, X., Carmichael, O., Calon, F., et al. (2023) · Aging and disease · doi:10.14336/ad.2023.0814 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Insulin-degrading enzyme: Roles and pathways in ameliorating cognitive impairment associated with Alzheimer's disease and diabetes
Tian, Y., Jing, G., & Zhang, M. (2023) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2023.101999 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
The Mediterranean Diet and 2-Year Change in Cognitive Function by Status of Type 2 Diabetes and Glycemic Control
Mattei, J., Bigornia, S., Sotos‐Prieto, M., Scott, T. M., Gao, X., & Tucker, K. L. (2019) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc19-0130 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Exploring the Role of PSEN Mutations in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease
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Reassessment of Pioglitazone for Alzheimer’s Disease
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Mutations of beta-amyloid precursor protein alter the consequence of Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis
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The effects of popular diets on type 2 diabetes management
Chester, B., Babu, J. R., Greene, M. W., & Geetha, T. (2019) · Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews · doi:10.1002/dmrr.3188 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
A quantitative meta-analysis of vitamin C in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease
Hamid, M., Mansoor, S., Amber, S., & Zahid, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.970263 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Insulin differentially affects the distribution kinetics of amyloid beta 40 and 42 in plasma and brain
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13. Older Adults: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2026
American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee for Diabetes*, Bajaj, M., McCoy, R. G., Balapattabi, K., Bannuru, R. R., Bellini, N. J., Bennett, A. K., Beverly, E. A., Briggs Early, K., ChallaSivaKanaka, S., et al. (2026) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc26-s013 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
4. Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2026
Bajaj, M. S., McCoy, R. G., Balapattabi, K., Bannuru, R. R., Bellini, N. J., Bennett, A. K., Beverly, E. A., Early, K. B., ChallaSivaKanaka, S., Echouffo-Tcheugui, J. B., et al. (2025) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc26-s004 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Liver, ageing and disease
Couteur, D. G. L., Ngu, M., Hunt, N. J., Brandon, A. E., Simpson, S. J., & Cogger, V. C. (2025) · Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology · doi:10.1038/s41575-025-01099-z · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Impact of Vegan and Vegetarian Diets on Neurological Health: A Critical Review
Clemente‐Suárez, V. J., Redondo-Flórez, L., Martín-Rodríguez, A., Curiel-Regueros, A., Rubio-Zarapuz, A., & Tornero-Aguilera, J. F. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17050884 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Overview of Metformin and Neurodegeneration: A Comprehensive Review
Kruczkowska, W., Gałęziewska, J., Buczek, P., Płuciennik, E., Kciuk, M., & Śliwińska, A. (2025) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph18040486 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citation
From metabolic dysregulation to neurodegenerative pathology: the role of hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, and blood-brain barrier breakdown in T2D-driven Alzheimer’s disease
Raza, A., Saleem, S., Imran, S., Rahman, S. B., Haroon, M. H., Razzaq, A., Hussain, A., Iqbal, J., & Sathian, B. (2025) · Metabolic Brain Disease · doi:10.1007/s11011-025-01700-z · Cited by 48 · see citing works
The close relationship between trace elements (Cu, Fe, Zn, Se, Rb, Si, Cr, and V) and Alzheimer's disease: Research progress and insights
Mao, Y., Zhang, L., Zhang, C., Qin, L., Liao, X., & Zhao, L. (2025) · Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtemb.2025.127692 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Could a Mediterranean Diet Modulate Alzheimer’s Disease Progression? The Role of Gut Microbiota and Metabolite Signatures in Neurodegeneration
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Diabetes, Alzheimer's Disease Risk Factors, and the Cafeteria Diet: A Comprehensive Review
Abubakar, M., Giri, A., Goel, F., Khan, M., Gupta, J., Kumar, D., Kaushik, M., Nand, S., & Kumar, N. (2025) · Current Neuropharmacology · doi:10.2174/011570159x384737250626094315 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
A systematic review on type 3 diabetes: bridging the gap between metabolic dysfunction and Alzheimer’s disease
Atabi, F., Moassesfar, M., Nakhaie, T., Bagherian, M., Hosseinpour, N., & Hashemi, M. (2025) · Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome · doi:10.1186/s13098-025-01930-2 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
AdipoRon’s Impact on Alzheimer’s Disease—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Barbalho, S. M., Laurindo, L. F., de Oliveira Zanuso, B., da Silva, R. M. S., Gallerani Caglioni, L., Nunes Junqueira de Moraes, V. B. F., Fornari Laurindo, L., Dogani Rodrigues, V., da Silva Camarinha Oliveira, J., Beluce, M. E., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26020484 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Understanding the Insulin-Degrading Enzyme: A New Look at Alzheimer’s Disease and Aβ Plaque Management
Cerasuolo, M., Auriemma, M. C., Meo, I. D., Lenti, C., Papa, M., Paolisso, G., & Rizzo, M. R. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26146693 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Post-traumatic stress disorder, metabolic syndrome, diabetic distress, and vitamin B1/benfotiamine
Serhiyenko, V. A., Чемерис, О. М., Pankiv, V. І., & Serhiyenko, A. A. (2025) · INTERNATIONAL NEUROLOGICAL JOURNAL · doi:10.22141/2224-0713.21.1.2025.1157 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
The role of per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances in cognitive impairment and dementia
Gardener, H. E., Levin, B. E., Kannan, K., & Rundek, T. (2025) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.70226 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Exploring the interplay of glucose metabolism, insulin resistance, and neurodegenerative pathologies: insights from streptozotocin and hypoglycaemic in vitro models
Grünblatt, E., Ohki, C. M. Y., Schmitt-Böhrer, G. A., Riederer, P. F., & Walitza, S. (2025) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-025-02891-6 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Metformin’s Effects on Cognitive Function from a Biovariance Perspective: A Narrative Review
Chele, D., Sîrbu, C. A., Mitrică, M., Toma, M., Vasiliu, O., Sirbu, A. M., Authier, F., Mischianu, D. L. D., & Munteanu, A. E. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26041783 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Dietary Patterns Influence Chronic Disease Risk and Health Outcomes in Older Adults: A Narrative Review
Gunning, J. A., Converse, M., Gudarzi, B., Lotfallah, W., & Racette, S. B. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17243910 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Uncovering Hyperhomocysteinemia: Global Risk Patterns and Molecular Disruption in Brain and Vascular Health
Júnior, O. V. R., Prauchner, G. R. K., Rieder, A. S., Leite, A. K. O., Farias, C. P., & Wyse, Â. T. D. S. (2025) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.70327 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Biologics as Therapeutical Agents Under Perspective Clinical Studies for Alzheimer’s Disease
Li, H., Shen, X., Zhang, B., & Zhu, Z. (2025) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules30173479 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Excitation–inhibition homeostasis in Alzheimer’s disease: a selective multiscale review of mechanisms, sex differences, and therapeutic opportunities
Burns, A. P., Duran, M. I., Fortel, I., Lazarov, O., Zhan, L., Bendlin, B. B., & Leow, A. (2026) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-026-02334-0 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Nano‐Chaperones: Bridging Therapeutics for Amyloid Aggregation in Alzheimer's Disease and Type‐2 Diabetes Mellitus
Siddiqui, F., Mishra, P., Khanam, S., Ranjan, S., Alam, P., Albalawi, T., Khan, S., & Mir, S. S. (2025) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.70142 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Bridging Pancreatic Amyloidosis and Neurodegeneration: The Emerging Role of Amylin in Diabetic Dementia
Shome, G., Mondal, R., Deb, S., Roy, J., Mandal, A. K., & Benito‐León, J. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26115021 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Exercise‐induced signalling in alleviating neuronal insulin resistance
Reddy, I., & Dey, C. S. (2025) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp287750 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Inflammatory Nexus: Unraveling Shared Pathways and Promising Treatments in Alzheimer’s Disease and Schizophrenia
Russo, A. P., Pastorello, Y., Dénes, L., Brînzaniuc, K., Krupiński, J., & SLEVIN, M. A. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26136237 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The multifactorial nature of Alzheimer’s disease: A review of diverse determinants and the essential role of multimodal machine learning
Mostaghimi, H., Cohen, D. A., Okhravi, H. R., Niknejad, B., & Audette, M. A. (2025) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics Plus · doi:10.1016/j.aggp.2025.100207 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Baicalin alleviates pathological changes in Alzheimer's disease comorbid with type 2 diabetes: Targeting metabolic dysregulation and neuroinflammation
Song, Z., Yu, W., Jin, Y., Zhou, M.-F., He, C., Li, Z., He, J., Chen, Q., Li, P., Yi, Y., et al. (2025) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2025.120352 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
From particulates to pathways: environmental exposures and their impact on Alzheimer’s disease
Liu, B., Ahmad, M. A., Abbas, G., Ahmed, U., Javed, R., Ali, I., Ao, Q., & Deng, X. (2025) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2025.149880 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Potential mechanism and efficacy evaluation of transcranial focused ultrasound therapy for Alzheimer's disease
Qin, W., He, J., & Zhou, Y. (2025) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2025.110428 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Dual GSK3β/SIRT1 modulators for Alzheimer’s: mechanisms, drug discovery and future perspectives
Kareem, A. I., Kapp, E., Joubert, J., & Zou, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2025.1662241 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
2-Oxoindolin-thiazoline hybrids as scaffold-based therapeutics for T2DM-associated cognitive impairment: design, synthesis, in vitro and in silico studies
Qayed, W. S., Hassan, M. A., Şenol, H., Taslımı, P., & Tarek Aboul-fadl, A. (2025) · RSC Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1039/d5md00628g · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The role of the Mediterranean diet in the treatment of cognitive dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
Zheng, C., Zhang, Q., Liu, F., & Qiu, G. (2025) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2025.1654684 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Adiponectin deficiency drives cerebrovascular dysfunction and synergizes with amyloid-β to exacerbate alzheimer’s pathology
Zou, W., Yick, L.-W., Kwan, J., Zhang, Z., Xue, H., & Chan, K. H. (2026) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-026-01968-y · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The glucose ketone index: a proposed quantitative biomarker to support cancer and chronic disease prevention and management
Lee, D. C., Duraj, T., Cooper, I. D., Maroon, J. C., Smith, K., Abdel-Hadi, W., Omene, E., Athanasios, E., & Seyfried, T. N. (2026) · Frontiers in Science · doi:10.3389/fsci.2026.1763395 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Is the Voltage-Dependent Anion Channel a Major Player in Neurodegenerative Diseases?
Neumann, S., & Heumann, R. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26136138 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Exploring the molecular mechanisms of Pueraria in Alzheimer’s disease treatment using machine learning and network pharmacology
Ye, K., Li, L., Guan, L., Qin, M.-M., Xu, X., Wu, J., Huang, L.-Z., & Gao, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2025.1683852 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Metabolic Drivers of Alzheimer’s Disease: Integrating brain Hypometabolism, insulin Resistance, and systemic dysregulation
Suswidiantoro, V., Tang, K. S., Rahman, K., Puteri, M. U., Wahyuni, T., Ariestanti, D. M., James, R. J., Yan, C. C., Kato, M., & Saputri, F. C. (2026) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2026.101248 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
From Lipids to Mitochondria: Shared Metabolic Alterations in Obesity and Alzheimer’s Disease
Uranga, R. M., & Allani, S. K. (2026) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells15080672 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Brain insulin resistance as a driver of proteinopathy in neurodegeneration: from cell-type-specific mechanisms to targeted therapeutics
Xiang, M., Cao, S.-Y., Sun, X.-H., Hu, J.-W., Lv, M., Li, J., & Li, W. (2026) · Translational Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/s40035-026-00573-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The process of angiogenesis in neurodegeneration—pathomechanisms and new therapeutic interventions
Kieliszek-Ryba, P., Jakimiuk, A., Kurek, J., Simola, N., Caria, F., Piątkowska‐Chmiel, I., & Herbet, M. (2025) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-025-06874-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Insulin resistance may hold the key to Alzheimer's disease
Winter, G. (2025) · British Journal of Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjon.2025.0056 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Evaluating the Link Between Cardiovascular Risk and Alzheimer’s Disease: A Comprehensive Case-Control Study in Castilla y León, Spain
Bello-Corral, L., Seco‐Calvo, J., Miguel, M. C. S., Garrosa, E., Fernández‐Lázaro, D., & Sánchez-Valdeón, L. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15063409 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effect of Exercise Timing on Inflammation and Cognition in Aged Women with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized Controlled Trial
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Authors: Kciuk, M., Kruczkowska, W., Gałęziewska, J., Wanke, K., Kałuzińska-Kołat, Ż., Aleksandrowicz, M., & Kontek, R.
Affiliations: University of Łódź (PL)
Medical University of Lodz (PL)
Department of Functional Genomics, Medical University of Lodz, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences (PL)
Corresponding author: Kciuk, Mateusz
ORCID: Kciuk, Mateusz
Kruczkowska, Weronika
Gałęziewska, Julia
Wanke, Katarzyna
Kałuzińska-Kołat, Żaneta
Aleksandrowicz, Marta
Kontek, Renata
Venue: International Journal of Molecular Sciences
Publisher: MDPI AG
Published: 2024-11-07
Volume: 25
Issue: 22
Pages: 11955
ISSN: 1422-0067 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.3390/ijms252211955
PMC: PMC11593477
OpenAlex: W4404148136
Cited by: 98
References: 302
Citations by year: 2026: 53 · 2025: 45
FWCI: 5.59
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: International Journal of Molecular Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Keywords: Alzheimer's disease, type 3 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, impaired glucose metabolism, insulin signaling, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, cognitive decline, antidiabetic drugs, lifestyle modification, Alzheimer's disease prevention, Alzheimer's disease treatment
MeSH terms: Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2, Humans, Insulin, Insulin Resistance, Oxidative Stress

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Alzheimer’s disease as type 3 diabetes: understanding the link and implications

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