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Cited by 18Plant Pathogens and Fungal DiseasesFungal and yeast genetics researchmelanin and skin pigmentation

Fungal Melanin in Plant Pathogens: Complex Biosynthesis Pathways and Diverse Biological Functions

Open access
Jia, Hui, Liu, Ning, Zhang, Lu, Li, Pan, Meng, Yanan, Yuan, Wei, Li, Haixiao, Tantai, Dezeng +3 more·2025·Plants
DOI 10.3390/plants14142121PMC PMC12298301
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Abstract

Fungal melanin plays a vital role in the survival, reproduction, infection, and environmental adaptation of plant pathogenic fungi. To develop innovative strategies for managing plant fungal diseases, comprehensive investigations into melanin are imperative. Such research is fundamental to elucidating the mechanistic basis of fungal pathogenesis and holds promise for the design of targeted interventions against melanin-mediated virulence determinants. This review systematically elaborates on the classification of fungal melanin in plant pathogens, provides a detailed analysis of the biosynthetic processes of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene melanin (DHN melanins), and reveals the catalytic functions and regulatory mechanisms of key enzymes within these pathways. Melanin modulates fungal virulence by influencing appressorial integrity and turgor pressure formation, thereby participating in the host infection process and the formation of overwintering sclerotia. Melanin provides stress resistance by protecting against extreme environmental factors, including UV radiation and high temperatures. It also has the capacity to absorb heavy metals, which increases pathogen survival under adverse conditions. Furthermore, the review also explores the mechanisms of action of melanin inhibitors that target plant pathogenic fungi, providing a theoretical foundation for developing efficient and environmentally friendly antifungal medications. The complex biosyn…

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review synthesizes the classification, biosynthesis, and biological functions of fungal melanin in plant pathogens, focusing on DOPA and DHN melanins. It highlights melanin’s roles in appressorial turgor and pathogenicity, stress resistance, and as a target for antifungal inhibitors.

Key findings

  • Fungal melanin is classified into four types based on biosynthetic intermediates—GDBH melanin, catechol melanin, DOPA melanin, and DHN melanin—with DOPA and DHN melanin described as the two most important types. DOPA melanin synthesis uses L-DOPA or tyrosine via tyrosinase/LAC, while DHN melanin synthesis uses acetyl-CoA or malonyl-CoA via PKS, T4HN, reductases, SCD, and LAC.
  • Melanin localizes primarily in the fungal cell wall, forming spherical particles of 40–130 nm or irregular sheet-like crystals, with pores of 1–4 nm (rarely up to 30 nm). Lamellar interlayer spacing varies by species: 4.39 Å for *C. neoformans*, 4.15 Å for *W. dermatitidis*, and 4.45 Å for *A. niger*.
  • DHN melanin contributes to appressorial integrity and turgor pressure in many plant pathogens, including *Magnaporthe grisea* and *Setosphaeria turcica*; melanin-deficient mutants can lose pathogenicity or form defective appressoria. However, melanin is not universally required for pathogenicity: deletion of *CgCmr1* or *CgPks1* in *C. gloeosporioides* caused no significant pathogenicity alteration, and deletion of *bcbrn1* and *bcpks13* in *B. cinerea* enhanced virulence on pepper.
  • Melanin confers stress resistance against UV, heat, and heavy metals. Examples include 50% lower survival of Δ*VdCmr1* mutants under UV, 100% survival of *Cordyceps javanica* microsclerotia at 55 °C and UV-B, and Pb²⁺ adsorption up to 45 mg/g by melanin-based nanomaterials. Inhibitors such as tricyclazole target 3HNR, while other compounds target PKS, LAC, or tyrosinase.

Methods

  • Narrative review synthesizing current knowledge on melanin biosynthetic pathways, pathogenicity, stress resistance, and inhibitor mechanisms in plant pathogenic fungi.
  • No experimental data, sample, or systematic search/analysis are reported; evidence is drawn from cited literature.
  • The paper does not describe a systematic review protocol, databases, inclusion criteria, or quantitative synthesis.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the precise chemical composition of melanin remains undefined, hindering full characterization of its functions and properties.
  • Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without a stated systematic search or quality assessment, and conclusions rely on studies across diverse fungal species with species-specific differences in melanin function.
  • The paper does not include a dedicated limitations section; the above limitations are either stated in the text or evident from its design.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/plants14142121

Cites

94 of 94 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

37 of 107 cited sources checked · 10 supported · 3 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Melanin-deficient mutant strains lose their pathogenic capacity due to compromised turgor pressure.

    “Melanin-deficient mutant strains lose their pathogenic capacity due to compromised turgor pressure, thereby highlighting the essential role of melanin [13,14].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13] Steiner, 2022, A melanin-deficient isolate of Venturia inaequalis reveals various roles of melanin in pathogen life cycle and fitness, J. Fungi source

      The Discussion says the melanin-deficient isolate had reduced aggressiveness, but explicitly did not lose pathogenicity completely. It attributes reduced penetration success to poor concentration of cuticle-degrading enzymes and says physical force is not suitable for penetration; it does not attribute the effect to compromised turgor pressure. The supplied copy gives section labels but no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [14] Howard, 1996, Breaking and entering: Host penetration by the fungal rice blast pathogen Magnaporthe grisea, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. source
  • Premisecitation

    Melanin synthesis is regulated by the transcription factor StMbp1 in Setosphaeria turcica, which activates expression by binding the CGCG motif in the StPKS promoter, promoting melanin accumulation.

    “Melanin synthesis is regulated by the transcription factor StMbp1 in Setosphaeria turcica, which activates expression by binding the CGCG motif in the StPKS promoter, promoting melanin accumulation [30].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Zeng, 2020, Setosphaeria turcica ATR turns off appressorium-mediated maize infection and triggers melanin-involved self-protection in response to genotoxic stress, Mol. Plant Pathol. source
  • Premisecitation

    The entire DHN melanin pathway involves five key catalytic enzymes.

    “This entire pathway involves five key catalytic enzymes [29] (Figure 3A).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Qin, 2024, Melanin in fungi: Advances in structure, biosynthesis, regulation, and metabolic engineering, Microb. Cell Fact. source

      The “Biosynthesis of fungal melanin > DHN-melanin” section describes several catalytic steps and names PKS, T4HN reductase, and laccase. It does not state that the entire pathway has exactly five key catalytic enzymes; it also notes that the pathway differs among fungi. The enzyme count is therefore unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Fungi such as Aspergillus niger and Basidiomycetes synthesize DOPA melanin through a biosynthetic pathway analogous to mammalian melanogenesis, utilizing L-DOPA as a substrate.

    “Fungi such as Aspergillus niger and Basidiomycetes synthesize DOPA melanin through a biosynthetic pathway analogous to mammalian melanogenesis, utilizing L-DOPA as a substrate [17,18,19].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [17] Palonen, 2017, Melanisation of Aspergillus terreus-is butyrolactone I involved in the regulation of both DOPA and DHN types of pigments in submerged culture?, Microorganisms source

      The Introduction describes fungal DOPA melanin pathways and identifies 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine as one possible precursor. It does not establish DOPA melanin synthesis in Aspergillus niger or Basidiomycetes, or compare their pathways with mammalian melanogenesis. The Discussion (§4.1) addresses other Aspergillus species instead; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [18] Eisenman, 2012, Synthesis and assembly of fungal melanin, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. source

      The Melanin biosynthesis section says that some fungi use L-DOPA in a pathway resembling mammalian melanin biosynthesis. But it discusses Aspergillus niger in connection with the DHN-melanin pathway, not as an example of L-DOPA synthesis, and does not identify Basidiomycetes as a group using that pathway. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [19] Wheeler, 1983, Comparisons of fungal melanin biosynthesis in ascomycetous, imperfect and basidiomycetous fungi, Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. source
  • Premisecitation

    C. neoformans melanin evades host phagocytosis by modifying cell surface charge.

    “For example, extracellular melanin secreted by Fonsecaea pedrosoi triggers phagocyte activation and enhances their phagocytic efficiency [38], whereas C. neoformans melanin evades host phagocytosis by modifying cell surface charge [39].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] Nosanchuk, 1997, Cellular charge of Cryptococcus neoformans: Contributions from the capsular polysaccharide, melanin, and monoclonal antibody binding, Infect. Immun. source

      The paper reports that melanization increases negative cell charge and has been associated with reduced macrophage phagocytosis (Discussion). But its opening background says the mechanism of resistance to phagocytosis is unknown and that mediation by altered cell charge was only speculated. The claim presents that proposed mechanism as established. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • May combine two claims. 51
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cryptococcus neoformans forms a melanin layer exclusively upon exogenous DOPA supplementation, a process catalyzed by LAC.

    “The human pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans represents the most intensively studied model for DOPA melanin biosynthesis [20], as it forms a melanin layer exclusively upon exogenous DOPA supplementation, a process catalyzed by LAC [21].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [20] Wang, 1996, Melanin, melanin “ghosts,” and melanin composition in Cryptococcus neoformans, Infect. Immun. source

      The paper supports laccase-catalyzed melanin synthesis, but contradicts the claim that melanization occurs exclusively with exogenous DOPA. The Results and Discussion report melanization in medium containing dopamine and, to a lesser extent, catechol; page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [21] Eisenman, 2009, Vesicle-associated melanization in Cryptococcus neoformans, Microbiology source

      The introductory passage says melanization depends on a substrate such as L-DOPA “and other catecholamines,” contrary to the claim that it occurs exclusively with DOPA supplementation. The same passage supports the laccase component: it says melanization requires laccase expression and that melanin is found in the cell wall. No page number is provided for this passage. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Aspergillus fumigatus, melanin in conidial walls is essential for the proper expression of adhesins and other virulence factors, while inducing only minimal inflammatory cytokine responses to circumvent host antifungal defenses.

    “In A. fumigatus, melanin in conidial walls is essential for the proper expression of adhesins and other virulence factors, while inducing only minimal inflammatory cytokine responses to circumvent host antifungal defenses [40,41].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [40] Pihet, M., Vandeputte, P., Tronchin, G., Renier, G., Saulnier, P., Georgeault, S., Mallet, R., Chabasse, D., Symoens, F., and Bouchara, J.P. (2009). Melanin is an essential component for the integrity of the cell wall of Aspergillus fumigatus conidia. BMC Microbiol., 9. source

      The Conclusion states that melanin is required for correct assembly of A. fumigatus conidial-wall layers and for surface expression of adhesins and other virulence factors. The Background and Discussion describe protection against host immune defenses, but our copy does not say melanin induces only minimal inflammatory cytokine responses; a search for cytokines found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [41] Heinekamp, T., Thywißen, A., Macheleidt, J., Keller, S., Valiante, V., and Brakhage, A.A. (2013). Aspergillus fumigatus melanins: Interference with the host endocytosis pathway and impact on virulence. Front. Microbiol., 3. source

      The ‘Interference of DHN melanin with immune cells’ section (page unavailable) says wild-type conidia and melanin ghosts weakly induce proinflammatory cytokines, whereas pigmentless conidia trigger a stronger response. It does not say that melanin is essential for the proper expression of adhesins or other virulence factors; it describes melanin’s roles in masking immunogenic structures and interfering with phagocytes. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Extracellular melanin secreted by Fonsecaea pedrosoi triggers phagocyte activation and enhances their phagocytic efficiency.

    “For example, extracellular melanin secreted by Fonsecaea pedrosoi triggers phagocyte activation and enhances their phagocytic efficiency [38], whereas C. neoformans melanin evades host phagocytosis by modifying cell surface charge [39].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] Alviano, 2004, Melanin from Fonsecaea pedrosoi induces production of human antifungal antibodies and enhances the antimicrobial efficacy of phagocytes, Infect. Immun. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Deletion of BRM1 in Alternaria alternata significantly reduces the production of alternariol toxin (ATX), suggesting a functional correlation between melanin biosynthesis and mycotoxin synthesis.

    “Deletion of BRM1 significantly reduces the production of alternariol toxin (ATX), suggesting a functional correlation between melanin biosynthesis and mycotoxin synthesis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [63] Li, R., Li, Y.C., Xu, W.Y., Liu, W.J., Xu, X.B., Bi, Y., and Prusky, D. (2024). Aabrm1-mediated melanin synthesis is essential to growth and development, stress adaption, and pathogenicity in Alternaria alternata. Front. Microbiol., 14. source

      The Introduction reports that deleting brm1 in A. alternata reduced production of altertoxin (ATX), and the Results section reports reduced melanin after Aabrm1 deletion. This supports the suggested link, but the source calls ATX altertoxin, not alternariol, and does not say the ATX reduction was statistically significant. The ATX finding is reported from Gao et al. (2022), not measured in this paper. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Melanin acts as a physical barrier, restricting the entry of harmful exogenous substances and maintaining a relatively stable intracellular environment.

    “Additionally, melanin acts as a physical barrier, restricting the entry of harmful exogenous substances and maintaining a relatively stable intracellular environment [85].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [85] Suthar, 2023, The enigmatic world of fungal melanin: A comprehensive review, J. Fungi source

      The Introduction describes fungal melanin as a cell-wall-associated layer that protects fungi against antimicrobial drugs and other stresses. It does not say that this layer restricts the entry of harmful substances or maintains a stable intracellular environment; those mechanisms go beyond what the review states. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Melanin-mediated UV resistance stems from a dual mechanism: its conjugated double-bond system efficiently absorbs UV photons, converting them to thermal energy via intramolecular vibration, while its physical architecture scatters incident radiation to reduce cellular penetration.

    “Melanin-mediated UV resistance stems from a dual mechanism: its conjugated double-bond system efficiently absorbs UV photons, converting them to thermal energy via intramolecular vibration, while its physical architecture scatters incident radiation to reduce cellular penetration [76,77].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [76] Zhou, 2024, RNA damage compartmentalization by DHX9 stress granules, Cell source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [77] Sinha, 2002, UV-induced DNA damage and repair: A review, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, deletion of CgCmr1 or CgPks1 results in melanin-deficient strains with reduced melanin accumulation in appressoria and lower appressorial turgor pressure than wild-type.

    “In C. gloeosporioides, deletion of CgCmr1 or CgPks1 results in melanin-deficient strains, which exhibit reduced melanin accumulation in appressoria and lower appressorial turgor pressure than wild-type [55,56].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [55] Wang, 2021, Analysis of melanin biosynthesis in the plant pathogenic fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Fungal Biol. source
    • cites [56] Qin, 2023, Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals the effect of the DHN melanin biosynthesis pathway on the appressorium turgor pressure of the poplar anthracnose-causing fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Int. J. Mol. Sci. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Melanin inhibitors can bind to the active site of PKS, altering its conformation and inhibiting catalytic activity, thereby blocking polyketide chain synthesis.

    “Melanin inhibitors can bind to the active site of PKS, altering its conformation and inhibiting catalytic activity, thereby blocking polyketide chain synthesis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [90] Hamada, 2014, Action mechanism of the novel rice blast fungicide tolprocarb distinct from that of conventional melanin biosynthesis inhibitors, J. Pestic. Sci. source

      The Discussion reports that tolprocarb inhibits the PKS of M. grisea, which catalyzes an early step in melanin synthesis. It does not establish that tolprocarb binds a PKS active site or changes the enzyme’s conformation. It also reports that the conventional melanin inhibitors tested did not affect PKS activity, so the claim is too broad as stated. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [91] Banba, 2017, Synthesis and activities of tolprocarb derivatives against Pyricularia oryzae: Relationships among the activities for polyketide synthase, melanin biosynthesis, and rice blast, J. Pestic. Sci. source

      The Results section (‘Relationship between PKS-A and MBI-A’; page not available) reports that tolprocarb derivatives inhibit PKS and identifies PKS as tolprocarb’s target in the melanin-biosynthesis pathway. It does not show that melanin inhibitors generally bind the PKS active site, alter its conformation, or block polyketide-chain synthesis by that mechanism. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Colletotrichum graminicola, appressorial melanization is critical for leaf infection, but melanin is not required for solute accumulation or turgor generation.

    “In C. graminicola, app yielded 296 mutants with no significant alterationressorial melanization is critical for leaf infection. Notably, melanin is not required for solute accumulation or turgor generation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62] Ludwig, 2014, Melanin is not required for turgor generation but enhances cell-wall rigidity in appressoria of the corn pathogen Colletotrichum graminicola, Mol. Plant Microbe Interact. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Melanin can chelate Ca2+ within phagosomes, thereby inhibiting the Ca2+-CaM signaling pathway and blocking host LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP).

    “Melanin can chelate Ca2+ within phagosomes, thereby inhibiting the Ca2+-CaM signaling pathway and blocking host LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP) [69].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Kyrmizi, 2018, Calcium sequestration by fungal melanin inhibits calcium-calmodulin signalling to prevent LC3-associated phagocytosis, Nat. Microbiol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Melanin modulates fungal virulence by influencing appressorial integrity and turgor pressure formation, thereby participating in the host infection process and the formation of overwintering sclerotia.

    “Melanin modulates fungal virulence by influencing appressorial integrity and turgor pressure formation, thereby participating in the host infection process and the formation of overwintering sclerotia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The precise chemical composition of melanin remains undefined, hindering full characterization of its functions and properties.

    “Despite extensive study, the precise chemical composition of melanin remains undefined, thereby hindering full characterization of its functions and properties.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The DHN pathway in Botrytis cinerea is non-linear; whether melanin forms in sclerotia or conidia depends on the expression of the upstream PKS-encoding genes bcpks12 (sclerotia) or bcpks13 (conidia).

    “The DHN pathway in B. cinerea is non-linear; whether melanin forms in sclerotia or conidia depends on the expression of the upstream PKS-encoding genes bcpks12 (sclerotia) or bcpks13 (conidia), highlighting the diversity of DHN melanin synthesis across fungi [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Schumacher, 2016, DHN melanin biosynthesis in the plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea is based on two developmentally regulated key enzyme (PKS)—Encoding genes, Mol. Microbiol. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fungal melanins are the most complex, encompassing all types and often existing as mixed polymeric forms.

    “Fungal melanins are the most complex, encompassing all types and often existing as mixed polymeric forms [7].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Singla, 2021, Isolation and characterization of allomelanin from pathogenic black knot fungus-a sustainable source of melanin, ACS Omega source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In plant pathogens, DHN melanin enhances fungal survival and reproduction within the host, exacerbates disease symptoms, and primarily facilitates breaching of host physical defense barriers.

    “Beyond protecting fungi from host-derived ROS, it enhances fungal survival and reproduction within the host, exacerbates disease symptoms, and primarily facilitates breaching of host physical defense barriers [42].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] Sichel, 1991, In vitro scavenger activity of some favonoids and melanins against O2−dot, Free Radic. Biol. Med. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Fungal melanin is primarily localized within the cell wall, with polymers exhibiting two major morphologies: spherical particles with diameters of 40-130 nm or irregular sheet-like crystals.

    “Fungal melanin is primarily localized within the cell wall, with its polymers exhibiting two major morphologies: spherical particles with diameters of 40–130 nm or irregular sheet-like crystals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The porous architecture of melanin provides channels for trans-wall transport of metabolites while blocking the penetration of host defense proteins, demonstrating selective permeability.

    “This porous architecture provides channels for trans-wall transport of metabolites (e.g., nutrients and signaling molecules) while blocking the penetration of host defense proteins (e.g., antibodies and enzymes), demonstrating selective permeability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The natural melanin layer contains pores with diameters of 1-4 nm (rarely up to 30 nm), and the pore size decreases with cell aging.

    “The natural melanin layer contains pores with diameters of 1–4 nm (rarely up to 30 nm), and the pore size decreases with cell aging.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fungal melanin has a conserved lamellar stacking structure, but the interlayer spacing varies among species: 4.39 Å for C. neoformans, 4.15 Å for Wangiella dermatitidis, and 4.45 Å for A. niger.

    “Fungal melanin has a conserved lamellar stacking structure, but the interlayer spacing varies among species: 4.39 Å for C. neoformans, 4.15 Å for Wangiella dermatitidis, and 4.45 Å for A. niger [34].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Nosanchuk, J.D., Stark, R.E., and Casadevall, A. (2015). Fungal melanin: What do we know about structure?. Front. Microbiol., 6. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Langfelder categorized fungal melanin into four types: DHN melanin, pyomelanin, pheomelanin, and eumelanin, with the latter two also referred to as DOPA melanin.

    “Langfelder categorized fungal melanin into four types: 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene melanin (DHN melanin), pyomelanin, pheomelanin, and eumelanin, with the latter two also referred to as dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA melanin) [2].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Langfelder, 2003, Biosynthesis of fungal melanins and their importance for human pathogenic fungi, Fungal Genet. Biol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Nicolaus classified melanin into three main types based on nitrogen/sulfur content and color: eumelanin, pheomelanin, and allomelanin.

    “Nicolaus classified melanin into three main types based on nitrogen/sulfur content and color: eumelanin, pheomelanin, and allomelanin [1].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] Nicolaus, R.A. (1968). Melanins, Hermann Press.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Melanin has the capacity to absorb heavy metals, which increases pathogen survival under adverse conditions.

    “It also has the capacity to absorb heavy metals, which increases pathogen survival under adverse conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Melanin provides stress resistance by protecting against extreme environmental factors, including UV radiation and high temperatures.

    “Melanin provides stress resistance by protecting against extreme environmental factors, including UV radiation and high temperatures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In mature appressoria, a dense melanin layer accumulates in the inner cell wall, reducing wall porosity.

    “In mature appressoria, a dense melanin layer accumulates in the inner cell wall, reducing wall porosity [14].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Howard, 1996, Breaking and entering: Host penetration by the fungal rice blast pathogen Magnaporthe grisea, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Melanin ensures virulence by maintaining appressorial turgor and mediates stress resistance through UV absorption, thermal buffering, and heavy metal chelation.

    “Melanin ensures virulence by maintaining appressorial turgor and mediates stress resistance through UV absorption, thermal buffering, and heavy metal chelation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: DHN melanin is pivotal for fungal pathogenicity.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Inhibitors targeting melanin biosynthesis, such as tricyclazole, provide an eco-friendly approach to antifungal strategies.

    “Inhibitors targeting melanin biosynthesis, such as tricyclazole, provide an eco-friendly approach to antifungal strategies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Plant pathogenic fungal diseases pose significant threats to global agricultural production, causing substantial losses in crop yield and quality.
    • Rests on an assumption: Traditional chemical fungicides have been pivotal in managing plant pathogenic fungal diseases.
    • Rests on an assumption: Prolonged use of traditional chemical fungicides has triggered pathogen resistance, environmental contamination, and risks to human health.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Melanin-based nanomaterials exhibit notable adsorption capacities for Cd2+, Cu2+, and Pb2+, with the adsorption capacity for Pb2+ reaching up to 45 mg/g.

    “Melanin-based nanomaterials exhibit notable adsorption capacities for Cd2+, Cu2+, and Pb2+, with the adsorption capacity for Pb2+ reaching up to 45 mg/g [86].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86] Peng, 2023, Biosynthetic melanin with excellent performance can be used for heavy metal adsorption, J. Clean. Prod. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Melanin attenuates host immune defenses, promoting Aspergillus survival and dissemination within the host.

    “Through these mechanisms, melanin effectively attenuates host immune defenses, promoting Aspergillus survival and dissemination within the host.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Melanin biosynthesis influences the pathogenic process at multiple critical nodes, serving as a key virulence determinant.

    “Thus, melanin biosynthesis influences the pathogenic process at multiple critical nodes, serving as a key virulence determinant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although melanin is not essential for Botrytis cinerea virulence, it plays a role in forming asexual reproductive structures like conidia and sclerotia.

    “Although melanin is not essential for B. cinerea virulence, it plays a role in forming asexual reproductive structures like conidia and sclerotia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Application of these compounds during the early stages of disease development effectively reduces disease incidence and preserves rice yield and quality.

    “Application of these compounds during the early stages of disease development has been shown to effectively reduce disease incidence and preserve rice yield and quality.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This mechanism prevents denaturation and inactivation of cellular macromolecules and maintains normal physiological functions.

    “This mechanism prevents denaturation and inactivation of cellular macromolecules (e.g., proteins, nucleic acids) and maintains normal physiological functions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Knocking out melanin synthesis genes leads to the accumulation of antimicrobial intermediate metabolites, which may impact fungal development.

    “Knocking out melanin synthesis genes leads to the accumulation of antimicrobial intermediate metabolites, which may impact fungal development [31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Chen, X., Zhu, C., Na, Y., Ren, D., Zhang, C., He, Y., Wang, Y., Xiang, S., Ren, W., and Jiang, Y. (2021). Compartmentalization of melanin biosynthetic enzymes contributes to self-defense against intermediate compound scytalone in Botrytis cinerea. mBio, 12. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The conjugated double-bond system of fungal melanin efficiently absorbs γ-rays and transforms radiation energy into chemical energy by altering electron cloud distribution.

    “It not only efficiently absorbs γ-rays but also transforms radiation energy into chemical energy by altering the electron cloud distribution.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Melanin is non-essential for virulence in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Zymoseptoria tritici, suggesting that there is no clear correlation between melanin biosynthesis capacity and pathogenicity in these fungal species.

    “Additionally, melanin has been shown to be non-essential for virulence in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Zymoseptoria tritici, suggesting that there is no clear correlation between melanin biosynthesis capacity and pathogenicity in these fungal species [73,74].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [73] Liang, 2018, Deficiency of the melanin biosynthesis genes SCD1 and THR1 affects sclerotial development and vegetative growth, but not pathogenicity, in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Mol. Plant Pathol. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites [74] Derbyshire, M.C., Gohari, A.M., Mehrabi, R., Kilaru, S., Steinberg, G., Ali, S., Bailey, A., Hammond-Kosack, K., Kema, G.H.J., and Rudd, J.J. (2018). Phosphopantetheinyl transferase (Ppt)-mediated biosynthesis of lysine, but not siderophores or DHN melanin, is required for virulence of Zymoseptoria tritici on wheat. Sci. Rep., 8. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The binding of fungal melanin to soil heavy metals reduces or eliminates their toxicity in contaminated soils and facilitates the reconstruction of microbial diversity, enabling bioremediation.

    “The binding of fungal melanin to soil heavy metals not only reduces or eliminates their toxicity in contaminated soils but also facilitates the reconstruction of microbial diversity, thereby enabling bioremediation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [87] Blanchette, 1996, Metal ion adsorption by pseudosclerotial plates of Phellinus eirii, Mycologia source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    DOPA and DHN melanins utilize distinct pathways, with key enzymes like PKS and LAC governing their synthesis.

    “DOPA and DHN melanins utilize distinct pathways, with key enzymes like PKS and LAC governing their synthesis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Melanin synthesis promotes conidiation in strains with lower melanin content but not in those with high melanin content in Magnaporthe grisea.

    “Conversely, melanin synthesis promotes conidiation in strains with lower melanin content but not in those with high melanin content in M. grisea [52].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Huang, P.Y., Cao, H.J., Li, Y., Zhu, S.Y., Wang, J., Wang, Q., Liu, X.H., Lin, F.C., and Lu, J.P. (2022). Melanin promotes spore production in the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Front. Microbiol., 13. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    StLAC2 participates in DHN-melanin synthesis, ensuring normal appressorial function, and is essential for maintaining cell wall integrity and pathogenicity.

    “StLAC2, a member of the LAC-like multicopper oxidase family, plays a dual key role. It participates in DHN-melanin synthesis, ensuring normal appressorial function, and is essential for maintaining cell wall integrity and pathogenicity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [32] Liu, N., Cao, Z.Y., Cao, K.K., Ma, S.X., Gong, X.D., Jia, H., Dai, D.Q., and Dong, J.G. (2019). Identification of laccase-like multicopper oxidases from the pathogenic fungus Setosphaeria turcica and their expression pattern during growth and infection. Eur. J. Plant Pathol., 153. source
    • cites [60] Ma, 2017, The StLAC2 gene is required for cell wall integrity, DHN-melanin synthesis and the pathogenicity of Setosphaeria turcica, Fungal Biol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This prevents the oxidative polymerization of DHN into melanin, thereby attenuating pathogen virulence.

    “This prevents the oxidative polymerization of DHN into melanin, thereby attenuating pathogen virulence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [94] Chaudhary, 2021, New inhibitors of laccase and tyrosinase by examination of cross-inhibition between copper-containing enzymes, Int. J. Mol. Sci. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites [95] Lee, M.K., Ryu, H., Jeong, H.H., and Lee, B. (2022). Brassinin abundant in Brassicaceae suppresses melanogenesis through dual mechanisms of tyrosinase inhibition. Foods, 12. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Botrytis cinerea, deletion of the melanin biosynthesis genes bcbrn1 and bcpks13 not only abolished melanization but also enhanced the virulence of mutants on host pepper plants.

    “In B. cinerea, deletion of the melanin biosynthesis genes bcbrn1 and bcpks13 not only abolished melanization but also enhanced the virulence of mutants on host pepper plants [72].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [72] Zhang, 2015, Loss of bcbrn1 and bcpks13 in Botrytis cinerea not only blocks melanization but also increases vegetative growth and virulence, Mol. Plant Microbe Interact. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Without a functional melanin layer, the fungus cannot penetrate the plant epidermis, and the infection process is suppressed.

    “Consequently, the fungus cannot penetrate the plant epidermis, and the infection process is suppressed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Melanin does not participate in the infection process of all plant pathogenic fungi, and in some cases it may even negatively regulate pathogenicity.

    “However, melanin does not participate in the infection process of all plant pathogenic fungi, and in some cases, it may even negatively regulate pathogenicity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Mutants with impaired melanin accumulation form defective appressoria that fail to mature properly and cannot trigger the turgor-dependent cell cycle checkpoint.

    “Mutants with impaired melanin accumulation form defective appressoria that fail to mature properly and cannot trigger the turgor-dependent cell cycle checkpoint.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    StMR1 directly binds to the promoter regions of DHN melanin pathway genes-StPKS, St3HNR, St4HNR, and StLAC2-thereby precisely modulating melanin biosynthesis levels and influencing appressorial development.

    “StMR1 directly binds to the promoter regions of DHN melanin pathway genes—StPKS, St3HNR, St4HNR, and StLAC2—thereby precisely modulating melanin biosynthesis levels and influencing appressorial development [33].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Zhang, 2022, The zinc finger protein StMR1 affects the pathogenicity and melanin synthesis of Setosphaeria turcica and directly regulates the expression of DHN melanin synthesis pathway genes, Mol. Microbiol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Following UV-C irradiation (522.8 mJ/cm2), the viability of Penicillium digitatum mutants with knockout of DHN melanin biosynthesis genes was compromised, and their pathogenicity on Valencia Orange fruits was significantly diminished.

    “Following UV-C irradiation (522.8 mJ/cm2), the viability of these mutants was compromised, and their pathogenicity on Valencia Orange fruits was significantly diminished [81].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] Yang, 2022, Functional identification of the DHN melanin synthesis gene cluster and its role in UV-C tolerance in citrus postharvest pathogenic fungus Penicillium digitatum, Fungal Biol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Melanin accumulation defects inhibit penetration peg formation, preventing pathogens from breaching host defense barriers and impairing pathogenicity.

    “Concurrently, melanin accumulation defects inhibit penetration peg formation. As the key structure for penetrating host tissue, peg formation failure directly prevents pathogens from breaching host defense barriers. This impedes successful tissue invasion and ultimately impairs pathogenicity [51].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] He, 2020, Discovery of broad-spectrum fungicides that block septin-dependent infection processes of pathogenic fungi, Nat. Microbiol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    VdSho1 regulates melanin biosynthesis through the Vst50-Vst11-Vst7 kinase signaling module, thereby enhancing the pathogen's penetration capacity and modulating its pathogenicity in V. dahliae.

    “VdSho1 regulates melanin biosynthesis through the Vst50-Vst11-Vst7 kinase signaling module, thereby enhancing the pathogen’s penetration capacity and modulating its pathogenicity [68].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [68] Li, 2019, The Verticillium dahliae Sho1-MAPK pathway regulates melanin biosynthesis and is required for cotton infection, Environ. Microbiol. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Disruption of melanin biosynthesis results in obvious albino phenotypes and loss of pathogenicity.

    “Disruption of melanin biosynthesis results in obvious albino phenotypes and loss of pathogenicity [48].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] Chumley, 1990, Genetic analysis of melanin-deficient, nonpathogenic mutants of Magnaporthe grisea, Mol. Plant Microbe Interact source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This prevents the formation of melanin precursors, ultimately halting DHN melanin production.

    “This prevents the formation of melanin precursors, ultimately halting DHN melanin production [90,91].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [90] Hamada, 2014, Action mechanism of the novel rice blast fungicide tolprocarb distinct from that of conventional melanin biosynthesis inhibitors, J. Pestic. Sci. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites [91] Banba, 2017, Synthesis and activities of tolprocarb derivatives against Pyricularia oryzae: Relationships among the activities for polyketide synthase, melanin biosynthesis, and rice blast, J. Pestic. Sci. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the DHN melanin biosynthetic pathway, T3HN is reduced by 3HNR to form DHN, which subsequently undergoes oxidative polymerization to yield melanin.

    “In the DHN melanin biosynthetic pathway, T3HN is reduced by 3HNR to form DHN, which subsequently undergoes oxidative polymerization to yield melanin [92].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [92] Thompson, 1997, Trihydroxynaphthalene reductase from Magnaporthe grisea: Realization of an active center inhibitor and elucidation of the kinetic mechanism, Biochemistry source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compared to wild-type, Δamr1 mutants show reduced melanin synthesis and increased sensitivity to UV.

    “Compared to wild-type, Δamr1 mutants show reduced melanin synthesis and increased sensitivity to UV.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Tricyclazole is a classic and widely used melanin synthesis inhibitor that specifically targets the activity of 3HNR.

    “Tricyclazole is a classic and widely used melanin synthesis inhibitor that specifically targets the activity of 3HNR.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [92] Thompson, 1997, Trihydroxynaphthalene reductase from Magnaporthe grisea: Realization of an active center inhibitor and elucidation of the kinetic mechanism, Biochemistry source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The ΔCgscd1 mutant shows complete absence of melanin accumulation during appressorial formation or on vegetative hyphae and exhibits reduced hyphal penetration ability.

    “The ΔCgscd1 mutant shows complete absence of melanin accumulation during appressorial formation or on vegetative hyphae and exhibits reduced hyphal penetration ability [57].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Wang, 2020, CgSCD1 is essential for melanin biosynthesis and pathogenicity of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Pathogens. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Botrytis cinerea, melanin deposition in conidia and sclerotia confers dark pigmentation, which significantly enhances UV resistance by absorbing and scattering UV radiation, thereby reducing DNA damage.

    “In B. cinerea, melanin deposition in conidia and sclerotia confers dark pigmentation, which significantly enhances UV resistance by absorbing and scattering UV radiation, thereby reducing DNA damage [80].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [80] Fan, 2020, Research on 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene melanin in plant pathogenic fungi, Microbiology.

      Not checked in the free run.

55 of 55

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Melanin-mediated virulence determinants are suitable targets for developing efficient and environmentally friendly antifungal interventions against plant pathogenic fungi.

    “Furthermore, the review also explores the mechanisms of action of melanin inhibitors that target plant pathogenic fungi, providing a theoretical foundation for developing efficient and environmentally friendly antifungal medications.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Findings about melanin function obtained in model or human pathogenic fungi can be generalized to plant pathogenic fungi.

    “In human pathogenic fungi, melanin demonstrates potent antioxidant activity, scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) to subvert host immune surveillance.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The classification of fungal melanin into four types based on intermediate metabolites is biologically meaningful and covers the melanins relevant to plant pathogenic fungi.

    “Based on intermediate metabolites in their synthesis pathways, they are classified into four types: γ-glutaminyl-3,4-dihydroxybenzene (GDBH melanin), catechol melanin, DOPA melanin, and 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN melanin) [16].”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    High temperatures induce excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in fungal cells.

    “Additionally, high temperatures can induce excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide anions and hydrogen peroxide, within fungal cells.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A ROS burst causes oxidative damage to cellular components, including lipids, proteins, and DNA.

    “This ROS burst causes oxidative damage to cellular components, including lipids, proteins, and DNA.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Heavy metals pose significant stress to plant pathogenic fungi.

    “Heavy metals pose significant stress to plant pathogenic fungi.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Upon detection of heavy metal stress, fungi activate diverse physiological and molecular response mechanisms, among which melanin biosynthesis plays a crucial role.

    “Upon detection of heavy metal stress, fungi activate diverse physiological and molecular response mechanisms, among which melanin biosynthesis plays a crucial role.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Plant pathogenic fungal diseases pose significant threats to global agricultural production, causing substantial losses in crop yield and quality.

    “Plant pathogenic fungal diseases pose significant threats to global agricultural production, causing substantial losses in crop yield and quality.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Traditional chemical fungicides have been pivotal in managing plant pathogenic fungal diseases.

    “Traditional chemical fungicides have been pivotal in managing these diseases”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Prolonged use of traditional chemical fungicides has triggered pathogen resistance, environmental contamination, and risks to human health.

    “yet their prolonged use has triggered critical issues, including the emergence of pathogen resistance, environmental contamination, and risks to human health.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    DHN melanin is pivotal for fungal pathogenicity.

    “DHN melanin, a critical constituent of pathogenic fungal cells, is pivotal for fungal pathogenicity.”
11 of 11

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Nicolaus, R.A. (1968). Melanins, Hermann Press.
  2. Fan, 2020, Research on 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene melanin in plant pathogenic fungi, Microbiology., 47, 3671

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Jia, H., Liu, N., Zhang, L., Li, P., Meng, Y., Yuan, W., Li, H., Tantai, D., Qu, Q., Cao, Z., & Dong, J.
Affiliations
  • Hebei Agricultural University (CN)
  • Hebei North University (CN)
Corresponding author
  • Qu, Qing
  • Cao, Zhiyan
  • Dong, Jingao
ORCID
Venue
Plants
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2025-07-09
Volume
14
Issue
14
Pages
2121
ISSN
2223-7747 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/plants14142121
PMC
PMC12298301
OpenAlex
W4412149238
Semantic Scholar
277cdac792d19e8323d8060aac9085adc2478c71
Cited by
18
References
93
Citations by year
2026: 15 · 2025: 3
FWCI
1.98
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Plants (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • National Key Research and Development Program of China (2023YFD1401500, 226Z6502G, C2024204044, C2025204211, CARS-02, 241791197A, 32402304, 23567601H)
  • Central Government Guided Local Science and Technology Development Funds (2023YFD1401500, 226Z6502G, C2024204044, C2025204211, CARS-02, 241791197A, 32402304, 23567601H)
  • Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province (2023YFD1401500, 226Z6502G, C2024204044, C2025204211, CARS-02, 241791197A, 32402304, 23567601H)
  • China Agriculture Research System (2023YFD1401500, 226Z6502G, C2024204044, C2025204211, CARS-02, 241791197A, 32402304, 23567601H)
  • Basic Research Projects of Universities in Hebei Province Funded by Shijiazhuang (2023YFD1401500, 226Z6502G, C2024204044, C2025204211, CARS-02, 241791197A, 32402304, 23567601H)
  • National Natural Science Foundation of China (2023YFD1401500, 226Z6502G, C2024204044, C2025204211, CARS-02, 241791197A, 32402304, 23567601H)
  • S&T Program of Hebei (2023YFD1401500, 226Z6502G, C2024204044, C2025204211, CARS-02, 241791197A, 32402304, 23567601H)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Plant Pathogens and Fungal Diseases
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Fungal and yeast genetics research
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › melanin and skin pigmentation
Keywords
fungal melanin, plant pathogenic fungi, melanogenesis, DOPA-melanin, fungal virulence, appressoria, turgor pressure, sclerotia, stress tolerance, UV resistance, heavy metal uptake, antifungal agents, fungal pathogenesis

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

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