Habitual coffee consumption and risk of hypertension: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of prospective observational studies
Open accessAbstract
Background In 2 meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials, increased coffee intake was associated with slightly higher blood pressure. However, these trials were short in duration (<85 d).Objective We conducted a systematic review and meta-analyses of long-term prospective studies that examined the association of habitual coffee consumption with risk of hypertension.Design We searched electronic databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, Agricola, and Cochrane Library) through August 2009 with the use of a standardized protocol. Eligible studies were prospective cohort trials that examined the association of coffee consumption with incident hypertension or blood pressure.Results From 6 prospective cohort studies, a total of 172,567 participants and 37,135 incident hypertension cases were included. Mean follow-up ranged from 6.4 to 33.0 y. Compared with the lowest consumption [<1 cup (≈237 mL)/d], the pooled relative risks (RRs) for hypertension were 1.09 (95% CI: 1.01, 1.18) for the next higher category (1-3 cups/d), 1.07 (95% CI: 0.96, 1.20) for the second highest category (3-5 cups/d), and 1.08 (95% CI: 0.96, 1.21) for the highest category (>5 cups/d). A dose-response meta-analysis showed an inverse "J-shaped" curve (P for quadratic term < 0.001) with hypertension risk increasing up to 3 cups/d (RR for comparison of 3 with 0 cups/d: 1.07; 95% CI: 0.97, 1.20) and decreasing with higher intakes (RR for comparison of 6 with 0 cups/d: 0.99; 95% CI: 0.89, 1.10).Conclusion The results suggest that habitual coffee consumption of >3 cups/d was not associated with an increased risk of hypertension compared with <1 cup/d; however, a slightly elevated risk appeared to be associated with light-to-moderate consumption of 1 to 3 cups/d.
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Compared with the reference category, the pooled RR for hypertension was 1.09 (95% CI 1.01-1.18) for low coffee consumption (one to three cups/day).
“Compared with the reference category, the pooled RRs (95 % CI) for hypertension were 1.09 (1.01-1.18)for the low category (one to three cups per day)”
From Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine (2015) · cites this paper as Zhang et al., 2011
In a dose-response meta-analysis, the best-fitting model showed an inverse J-shaped curve (p for quadratic <0.001), with risk of hypertension increasing up to three cups/day (RR 1.07, 95% CI 0.97-1.20) and decreasing with higher intake (RR for six cups vs zero: 0.99, 95% CI 0.89-1.10).
“In a dose-response meta-analysis, the best-fitting model showed an inverse “J-shaped” curve (p for quadratic term < 0.001), with the risk of hypertension increasing up to three cups per day (RR for the comparison of three cups with zero cups per day: 1.07, 95 % CI = 0.97-1.20)and decreasing with higher intake (RR for the comparison of six cups with zero cups per day: 0.99, 95 % CI = 0.89-1.10).”
From Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine (2015) · cites this paper as Zhang et al., 2011
Long-term heavy coffee consumption has been associated with a slightly elevated risk of hypertension and a higher level of plasma homocysteine.
“Long-term heavy coffee consumption has been associated with a slightly elevated risk of hypertension,40 and a higher level of plasma homocysteine.41, 42”
From Long-Term Coffee Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review and a Dose–Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies (2014) · cites this paper as [40]
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- Authors
- Zhang, Z., Hu, G., Caballero, B., Appel, L., & Chen, L.
- Affiliations
- Michigan State University (US)
- Venue
- The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-06
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1212-1219
- ISSN
- 0002-9165 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2165238637
- Cited by
- 166
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 1.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Coffee research and impacts
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Blood Pressure and Hypertension Studies
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Sodium Intake and Health
- Keywords
- coffee consumption, hypertension, blood pressure, dose-response relationship, J-curve, hypertension incidence, habitual dietary intake, prospective cohort
- MeSH terms
- Coffee, Feeding Behavior, Humans, Hypertension, Prospective Studies, Risk Factors
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