Toward a Theory of Paradox: A Dynamic equilibrium Model of Organizing
Abstract
As organizational environments become more global, dynamic, and competitive, contradictory demands intensify. To understand and explain such tensions, academics and practitioners are increasingly adopting a paradox lens. We review the paradox literature, categorizing types and highlighting fundamental debates. We then present a dynamic equilibrium model of organizing, which depicts how cyclical responses to paradoxical tensions enable sustainability—peak performance in the present that enables success in the future. This review and the model provide the foundation of a theory of paradox.
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- Findingnone given§ ORGANIZATIONAL PARADOX: CATEGORIZATION AND DEBATES
The paradox literature lacks conceptual and theoretical coherence.
“Even αs research adopting α paradox perspective has expanded dramatically, this review highlights the lack of conceptual and theoretical coherence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation§ Remaining Gaps: Debates in Paradox Research
A number of organizational fields refer to simultaneously attending to contradictory tensions without using the term paradox.
“Moreover, α number of organizational fields refer to simultaneously attending to contradictory tensions without using the term paradox.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ ORGANIZATIONAL PARADOX: CATEGORIZATION AND DEBATES
The number of these articles grew at an average rate of 10 percent per year.
“The number of these articles grew at an average rate of 10 percent per year.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ ORGANIZATIONAL PARADOX: CATEGORIZATION AND DEBATES
Within the sample, 360 articles focused on organizational paradox.
“Within our sample we found 360 articles focused on organizational paradox.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ FIGURE 1 Categorization of Organizational Tensions
Complexity and plurality drive belonging paradoxes, or tensions of identity.
“Complexity and plurality drive belonging paradoxes, or tensions of identity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Interpretationreasoning§ FIGURE 1 Categorization of Organizational Tensions
The same tensions can exist across each of these levels.
“Moreover, the same tensions can exist across each of these levels.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ TOWARD A THEORY OF PARADOX: A DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM MODEL OF ORGANIZING
As organizational environments become more global, dynamic, and competitive, contradictory demands intensify and become increasingly salient and persistent.
“As organizational environments become more global, dynamic, and competitive, contradictory demands intensify.”
- Also stated in: another passage · plain
“As environments become more global, fast paced, and competitive, and as internal organizational processes become more complex, such contradictory demands become increasingly salient and persistent (Lewis, 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lewis, 2000
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- Also stated in: another passage · plain
- Interpretationreasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and Salient
By defining how they are going to operate, leaders define how they are not going to operate, creating organizing tensions.
“By defining how they are going to operate, they define how they are not going to operate. Doing so creates organizing tensions, such as loosely coupled versus tightly coupled, centralized versus decentralized, and flexible versus controlling.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and Salient
Responding to questions about who is going to do what highlights conflicting identities, roles, and values, creating belonging tensions.
“Responding to questions about who is going to do what highlights conflicting identities, roles, and values, creating belonging tensions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ FIGURE 1 Categorization of Organizational Tensions
Paradoxical tensions may be nested, cascading across levels, as the experience at one level creates new challenges at another.
“Furthermore, paradoxical tensions may be nested, cascading across levels, as the experience at one level creates new challenges at another.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Outcome: Sustainability
Managing paradoxical tension via dynamic, purposeful, and ongoing strategies of acceptance and resolution (iterating between splitting and integration) fosters sustainability.
“Proposition 3: Managing paradoxical tension viα dynamic, purposeful, and ongoing strategies of acceptance and resolution (iterating between splitting and integration) fosters sustainability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and Salient
The result is a system of interrelated tensions.
“The result is α system of interrelated tensions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Outcome: Sustainability
Adopting a dynamic equilibrium approach to organizing can unleash human potential.
“Finally, adopting α dynamic equilibrium αpproach to organizing can unleash human potential.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Outcome: Sustainability
A dynamic equilibrium unleashes the power of paradox to foster sustainability.
“We expand on such studies, proposing that α dynamic equilibrium unleashes the power of paradox to foster sustainability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
Viewing decisions as situated in the long term may reduce conflict over scarce resources because managers recognize that any choice is temporary and likely to change.
“Specifically, viewing decisions as situated in the long term may reduce conflict over scarce resources because managers recognize that any choice is temporary, likely to change in the future because both dualities are vital to propagate longrun success.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
A dynamic strategy may reflect inconsistencies within the same time period, not only inconsistent choices over time.
“A dynamic strategy may not only reflect inconsistent choices over time but inconsistencies within the same time period.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
Together, individual and organizational forces for consistency fuel a reinforcing cycle by becoming increasingly focused on a single choice.
“Together, these individual and organizational forces for consistency fuel α reinforcing cycle by becoming increasingly focused on α single choice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
Behavioral complexity-a facility to adopt competing behaviors-enables acceptance of paradoxical tensions.
“Similarly, Denison and colleagues (1995) proposed that behavioral complexity, α facility to adopt competing behaviors, enables acceptance of paradoxical tensions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Denison et al., 1995
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
Acceptance lays the vital groundwork for virtuous cycles.
“Acceptance lays the vital groundwork for virtuous cycles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
Emotional equanimity fosters paradoxical responses by reducing anxiety and fear spurred by inconsistencies.
“Emotional equanimity, an emotional calm and evenness, further fosters paradoxical responses by reducing anxiety and fear spurred by inconsistencies (Huy, 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Huy, 1999
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- Interpretationcitation§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and Salient
Latent paradoxical tensions become salient as actors apply paradoxical cognition.
“Proposition lb: Latent paradoxical tensions become salient as actors apply paradoxical cognition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Outcome: Sustainability
A dynamic equilibrium fosters and reinforces commitment to multiple, competing agendas.
“In sum, α dynamic equilibrium fosters and reinforces commitment to multiple, competing agendas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Toward α Theory of Paradox
Paradox theory shifts the questions asked by motivational theorists from the conditions under which individuals are more driven by intrinsic or extrinsic motivators or self-interest or social interests to how individuals engage in these competing drives simultaneously.
“Similarly, paradox theory shifts the questions asked by motivational theorists from what the conditions are under which individuals are more driven by intrinsic or extrinsic motivators (Ryan & Deci, 2000) or self-interest or social interests (Crocker, 2008) to how individuals engage in these competing drives simultaneously.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Ryan & Deci, 2000
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- cites Crocker, 2008
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- Interpretationcitation§ The Outcome: Sustainability
By managing organizational paradox, a dynamic equilibrium fosters learning and creativity.
“By managing organizational paradox, α dynamic equilibrium fosters learning and creativity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and Salient
The adaptive nature of systems spurs temporal tensions associated with paradoxes of learning and organizing because the demands of today differ from the needs for tomorrow.
“Moreover, the adaptive nature of systems spurs temporal tensions associated with paradoxes of learning and organizing as the demands of today differ from the needs for tomorrow.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Teece, Pisano, & Shuen, 1997
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- cites Tushman & Romanelli, 1985
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- Interpretationcitation§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
Attending to competing demands simultaneously requires cognitive and behavioral complexity, emotional equanimity, and dynamic organizational capabilities.
“In contrast to factors that lead to defensiveness, we propose that attending to competing demands simultaneously requires cognitive and behavioral complexity, emotional equanimity, and dynamic organizational capabilities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
Applying consistently inconsistent management strategies further embeds tensions within the system's strategies, structures, rules, processes, and identities.
“Applying consistently inconsistent manαgement strategies further embeds tensions within the system's strategies, structures, rules, processes, and identities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and Salient
Latent tensions in organizational systems may remain dormant, unperceived, or ignored until environmental factors or cognitive efforts accentuate the oppositional and relational nature of dualities.
“Even as tensions persist in organizational systems, they may remain latent—dormant, unperceived, or ignored—until environmental factors or cognitive efforts accentuate the oppositional and relational nature of dualities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
Negative, vicious cycles stem from cognitive and behavioral forces for consistency, emotional anxiety and defensiveness, and organizational forces for inertia.
“Negative, vicious cycles, depicted in Figure 3 with the dotted, downward arrow, stem from such factors as cognitive and behavioral forces for consistency, emotional anxiety and defensiveness, and organizational forces for inertia.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
Acceptance can involve viewing resources as abundant rather than scarce.
“Acceptance can further involve viewing resources as abundant rather than scarce.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and Salient
Environmental factors-plurality, change, and scarcity-render latent paradoxical tensions salient to organizational actors.
“We propose that environmental factors—namely, plurality, change, and scarcity—render latent tensions salient.”
- Also stated in: another passage · plain
“Proposition la: Latent paradoxical tensions become salient to organizational actors under environmental conditions of plurality, change, and scarcity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: another passage · plain
- Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
Actors with cognitive and behavioral complexity and emotional equanimity are more likely to accept paradoxical tensions rather than respond defensively.
“Proposition 2a: Actors with cognitive and behavioral complexity and emotional equanimity are more likely to accept paradoxical tensions rather than respond defensively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous Cycles
Organizations with dynamic capabilities will foster greater acceptance of paradoxical tensions rather than encourage defensiveness.
“Proposition 2b: Organizations with dynamic capabilities will foster greater acceptance of paradoxical tensions rather than encourage defensiveness.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisereasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and Salient
Tensions emanating through acts of organizing persist because organizational systems are complex and adaptive.
“Tensions emanating through acts of organizing persist because of the complex and adaptive nature of organizational systems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Outcome: Sustainability
Managing paradoxical tensions helps individuals, groups, and firms to be flexible and resilient, fostering more dynamic decision making.
“Managing paradoxical tensions also helps individuals, groups, and firms to be flexible and resilient, fostering more dynamic decision making.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 35
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Findingnone given§ TOWARD A THEORY OF PARADOX: A DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM MODEL OF ORGANIZINGInsights from a paradox perspective are limited by fundamental debates about the nature and management of paradoxical tensions.
“Yet, even so, insights from α paradox perspective are limited by fundamental debates about the nature and management of paradoxical tensions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingcitation§ Remaining Gaps: Debates in Paradox ResearchA second challenge in the literature stems from an ontological debate that differentiates paradoxical tensions either as an inherent feature of a system or as social constructions that emerge from actors' cognition and rhetoric.
“A second challenge in the literature stems from an ontological debate that differentiates paradoxical tensions either as an inherent feature of α system or as social constructions that emerge from actors' cognition and rhetoric.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ ORGANIZATIONAL PARADOX: CATEGORIZATION AND DEBATESScholars have increasingly adopted a paradox perspective, with accumulating studies spanning organizational phenomena and levels of analysis.
“We found that scholars have increasingly adopted α paradox perspective, with accumulating studies spanning organizational phenomenα and levels of analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingcitation§ Remaining Gaps: Debates in Paradox ResearchAdvocated responses to paradox diverge between acceptance and resolution strategies.
“Advocated responses to paradox diverge between acceptance and resolution strategies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Findingnone given§ Remaining Gaps: Debates in Paradox ResearchDebates swirl around the conceptualization of paradox, the ontological nature of paradoxical tensions, and strategies to respond to these tensions.
“To be more specific, debates swirl around the conceptualization of paradox, the ontological nature of paradoxical tensions, and strategies to respond to these tensions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Findingnone given§ Remaining Gaps: Debates in Paradox ResearchThe lack of conceptual clarity in this field is evident in the varying language adopted to describe tensions, including 'paradox,' 'dilemma,' dichotomy,' and 'dialectic.'
“The lack of conceptual clarity in this field is evident in the varying language adopted to describe tensions, including “paradox,” “dilemma,” dichotomy,” and “dialectic.””
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone given§ FIGURE 1 Categorization of Organizational TensionsThe four categories of paradox represent core activities and elements of organizations: learning (knowledge), belonging (identity/interpersonal relationships), organizing (processes), and performing (goals).
“The four categories of paradox represent core activities and elements of organizations: learning (knowledge), belonging (identity/interpersonal relationships), organizing (processes), and performing (goals).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationreasoning§ DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM: AN INTEGRATIVE MODELThe system maintains equilibrium by adapting to a continuous pull in opposing directions.
“The system maintains equilibrium by adapting to α continuous pull in opposing directions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Dynamic equilibrium assumes constant motion across opposing forces.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ TOWARD A THEORY OF PARADOX: A DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM MODEL OF ORGANIZINGChoosing among competing tensions might aid short-term performance.
“Although choosing among competing tensions might aid short-term performance, α paradox perspective argues that long-term sustainability requires continuous efforts to meet multiple, divergent demands (Cameron, 1986; Lewis, 2000).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Cameron, 1986
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- cites Lewis, 2000
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Interpretationreasoning§ Remaining Gaps: Debates in Paradox ResearchThis ontological disparity fractures the literature and has implications for strategies to manage paradox through acceptance or resolution, another debate.
“This ontological disparity fractures the literature and has implications for strategies to manage paradox through acceptance or resolution, another debate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Remaining Gaps: Debates in Paradox ResearchIn Poole and Van de Ven's typology, the first strategy focuses on acceptance, whereas the last three seek to resolve the underlying tensions.
“In this frequently used typology, the first strategy focuses on acceptance, whereas the last three seek to resolve the underlying tensions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Poole and Van de Ven, 1989
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Interpretationnone given§ FIGURE 1 Categorization of Organizational TensionsOrganizing paradoxes surface as complex systems create competing designs and processes to achieve a desired outcome.
“Organizing paradoxes surface as complex systems create competing designs and processes to achieve α desired outcome.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ TOWARD A THEORY OF PARADOX: A DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM MODEL OF ORGANIZINGLeaders' responses to these tensions may be a fundamental determinant of an organization's fate.
“Leaders' responses to these tensions mαy be α fundamental determinant of an organization's fate (Quinn, 1988).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Quinn, 1988
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Interpretationcitation§ FIGURE 1 Categorization of Organizational TensionsPerforming paradoxes stem from the plurality of stakeholders and result in competing strategies and goals.
“Performing paradoxes stem from the plurality of stakeholders and result in competing strategies and goals.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationreasoning§ Remaining Gaps: Debates in Paradox ResearchLiving with paradox implies that actors shift their expectations for rationality and linearity to accept paradoxes as persistent and unsolvable puzzles.
“Living with paradox implies that actors shift their expectations for rationality and linearity to accept paradoxes as persistent and unsolvable puzzles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and SalientBy defining what they are trying to do, leaders define what they are not trying to do, highlighting goals and strategies and creating performing tensions.
“By defining what they are trying to do, the leaders define what they are not trying to do, highlighting goals and strategies and creating performing tensions, such as global versus local and socially focused versus financially focused.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ FIGURE 1 Categorization of Organizational TensionsTensions operate between as well as within these categories.
“Tensions operate between as well as within these categories.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Remaining Gaps: Debates in Paradox ResearchAcceptance is a powerful, proactive strategy, reducing defensiveness to unleash enhanced performance.
“Others, however, stress that acceptance is α powerful, proactive strategy, reducing defensiveness to unleash enhanced performance (Cameron, 1986).”
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Interpretationreasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and SalientParadoxical tensions are both inherent and socially constructed.
“Researchers have explored paradoxical tensions as either inherent—existing within the system—or socially constructed—created by actors' cognition or rhetoric. We propose that they are both.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationreasoning§ DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM: AN INTEGRATIVE MODELThe metaphor of dynamic equilibrium highlights the model's key features-the persistence of conflicting forces and purposeful, cyclical responses over time that enable sustainability.
“The metaphor of dynamic equilibrium highlights the model's key features—the persistence of conflicting forces and purposeful, cyclical responses over time that enable sustainability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Dynamic equilibrium assumes constant motion across opposing forces.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and SalientOpposing yet interrelated dualities are embedded in the process of organizing and are brought into juxtaposition via environmental conditions.
“That is, opposing yet interrelated dualities are embedded in the process of organizing and are brought into juxtaposition viα environmental conditions.”
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Interpretationnone given§ FIGURE 1 Categorization of Organizational TensionsLearning paradoxes surface as dynamic systems change, renew, and innovate.
“Learning paradoxes surface as dynamic systems change, renew, and innovate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ TOWARD A THEORY OF PARADOX: A DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM MODEL OF ORGANIZINGLong-term sustainability requires continuous efforts to meet multiple, divergent demands.
“Although choosing among competing tensions might aid short-term performance, α paradox perspective argues that long-term sustainability requires continuous efforts to meet multiple, divergent demands (Cameron, 1986; Lewis, 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Cameron, 1986
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- cites Lewis, 2000
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Interpretationreasoning§ The Outcome: SustainabilityA dynamic equilibrium enables sustainability through three mechanisms: enabling learning and creativity, fostering flexibility and resilience, and unleashing human potential.
“More specifically, α dynamic equilibrium enables sustainability through three mechanisms: (1) enabling learning and creativity, (2) fostering flexibility and resilience, and (3) unleashing human potential.”
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Interpretationnone given§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous CyclesAcceptance provides a comfort with tensions that enables more complex and challenging resolution strategies.
“Acceptance provides α comfort with tensions that enables more complex and challenging resolution strategies.”
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Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous CyclesThe threat of vicious cycles persists, requiring managers to remain vigilant as they iterate between acceptance and paradoxical resolution strategies.
“Yet even as virtuous cycles can reinforce underlying tensions, achieving benefits from those tensions is not easy. The threat of vicious cycles persists, requiring managers to remain vigilant as they iterate between acceptance and paradoxical resolution strategies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous CyclesConsistent inconsistency involves managers frequently and dynamically shifting decisions, making choices in the short term while remaining aware of accepting contradiction in the long term.
“Doing so involves consistent inconsistency as managers frequently and dynamically shift decisions. Actors therefore make choices in the short term while remaining acutely aware of accepting contradiction in the long term.”
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Interpretationcitation§ Toward α Theory of ParadoxParadox theory offers a frame to help neoinstitutional theorists explore the tensions of multiple logics.
“Paradox theory offers α frame to help neoinstitutional theorists explore the tensions of multiple logics (Kraatz & Block, 2008).”
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Interpretationnone given§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and SalientWhile actors construct organizations, doing so inherently surfaces material paradoxical tensions.
“While actors construct organizations, doing so inherently surfaces material paradoxical tensions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous CyclesParadoxes reflect both inherent features of organizations and the agency that created and continues to reproduce those systems.
“As such, paradoxes reflect both inherent features of organizations and the agency that created and continues to reproduce those systems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous CyclesDynamic capabilities provide collective tools that enable organizational leaders to respond to environmental shifts and enable members to be more open and accepting of paradoxical tensions.
“Dynamic capabilities provide collective tools to enable organizational leaders to respond to environmental shifts and, in doing so, enable members to be more open and accepting of the dynamic environment of paradoxical tensions.”
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Interpretationreasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and SalientTaken together, plurality, change, and scarcity challenge bounded rationality and stress systems, making individuals more prone to break apart interwoven elements into either/or decisions, practices, and understanding.
“Taken together, plurality, change, and scarcity challenge our bounded rαtionality and stress systems. As α result, individuals are more prone to break apart interwoven elements into either/or decisions, practices, and understanding, blurring their interrelatedness.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous CyclesIndividuals may react to tensions by choosing one agenda, altering beliefs or actions for consistency, or maintaining mindless commitment to previous behaviors.
“Individuals mαy also react by choosing one agenda, altering their beliefs or actions to enable α consistent response (Cialdini et αl., 1995) or maintaining an often mindless commitment to previous behaviors in order to enable consistency between the past and the future (Weick, 1993).”
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- cites Weick, 1993
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Interpretationreasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and SalientBy defining A we create a broad category of not A.
“By defining A we create α broad category of not A.”
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Interpretationreasoning§ Toward α Theory of ParadoxProviding a unifying platform can spur continued theoretical debate and guide future empirical research.
“Providing α unifying platform can spur continued theoretical debate and guide future empirical research.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Without an integrating theory, studies attending to simultaneous opposites coexist across theoretical and phenomenological domains without interacting with one another.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ The Outcome: SustainabilityJuxtaposing opposing forces may create the context for leaders to engage in creative problem solving, allowing their organizations to continuously improve.
“Juxtaposing opposing forces may create the context for leaders to engage in creative problem solving, allowing their organizations to continuously improve.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous CyclesOnce rendered salient, paradoxical tensions spur responses, and responses fuel reinforcing cycles that can be negative or positive.
“Once rendered salient, paradoxical tensions spur responses. According to paradox studies, responses fuel reinforcing cycles that can be negative or positive (Lewis, 2000).”
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Premisecitation§ Toward α Theory of ParadoxParadox studies demonstrate the value of alternative tools-case studies, action research, systems approaches, and agent-based models-for enabling more nuanced insights.
“Paradox studies demonstrate the value of alternative tools, such as case studies (Andriopoulos & Lewis, 2009), action research (Beech et al., 2004), systems αpproaches (Sterman, 2000), and agent-based models (Axelrod, 1997), for enabling more nuαnced insights.”
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Interpretationnone given§ Toward α Theory of ParadoxParadox theory proposes that contradictory theories exist.
“Paradox theory not only proposes that contradictory theories exist but offers α process for academics to start enriching and renewing our stock of organizational theories.”
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Interpretationreasoning§ CONCLUSIONParadox becomes a critical theoretical lens to understand and lead contemporary organizations.
“Today, as globalization, innovation, hypercompetition, and social demands create more dynamic and intricate environments, paradox becomes α critical theoretical lens to understand and to lead contemporary organizations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Globalization, innovation, hypercompetition, and social demands create more dynamic and intricate environments.
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Interpretationreasoning§ Toward α Theory of ParadoxA paradox theory offers opportunities for enriching organizational theorizing.
“Finally, α paradox theory offers opportunities for enriching organizational theorizing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Outcome: SustainabilityAttending to paradox and building supportive capabilities enable organizing to become a fluid, reflective, and sustainable process.
“Attending to paradox and building supportive capabilities enable orgαnizing to become α fluid, reflective, and sustainable process.”
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Interpretationnone given§ Toward α Theory of ParadoxA paradox theory encourages active searching for and surfacing of organizational tensions to enhance creativity and performance.
“Such α theory not only offers α response to organizational tensions but encourages active șearching for and surfacing of those tensions to enhance creativity and performance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ Toward α Theory of ParadoxA paradox theory offers a response to organizational tensions.
“Such α theory not only offers α response to organizational tensions but encourages active șearching for and surfacing of those tensions to enhance creativity and performance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and SalientTensions forged through the act of organizing are not merely distinct from one another but are also oppositional and relational.
“Tensions forged through the act of organizing are not merely distinct from one another but are also oppositional and relational (Seo et al., 2004).”
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Interpretationreasoning§ Toward α Theory of ParadoxA theory of paradox provides a metatheoretical perspective that can guide how other theories ask questions and explore insights.
“As with contingency theory, α theory of parαdox provides α metatheoretical perspective that can provide guidance on how other theories ask questions and explore insights.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Without an integrating theory, studies attending to simultaneous opposites coexist across theoretical and phenomenological domains without interacting with one another.
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Interpretationreasoning§ Toward α Theory of ParadoxParadox theory offers a process for academics to start enriching and renewing the stock of organizational theories.
“Paradox theory not only proposes that contradictory theories exist but offers α process for academics to start enriching and renewing our stock of organizational theories.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous CyclesA dynamic equilibrium creates a virtuous cycle.
“A dynamic equilibrium creates α virtuous cycle.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ Managing Tensions: Enabling Vicious and Virtuous CyclesThe dynamic equilibrium model proposes a managerial approach to paradox involving complementary and interwoven strategies of acceptance and resolution.
“The dynamic equilibrium model proposes α managerial approach to paradox involving complementary and interwoven strategies of acceptance and resolution.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationreasoning§ Paradoxical Tensions: Latent and SalientAs leaders consider the time horizon for their actions, they face learning tensions between today and tomorrow or between looking forward and looking backward.
“Finally, as leaders consider the time horizon for their actions, they face learning tensions between today and tomorrow or between looking forward and looking backward.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
Dynamic equilibrium assumes constant motion across opposing forces.
“Dynamic equilibrium, in contrast, assumes constant motion across opposing forces.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Tensions persist within complex and dynamic systems.
“But in contrast to contingency theory, α paradox perspective assumes that tensions persist within complex and dynamic systems.”
“At its core α paradox theory presumes that tensions are integral to complex systems and that sustainability depends on attending to contradictory yet interwoven demands simultaneously.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Sustainability depends on attending to contradictory yet interwoven demands simultaneously.
“At its core α paradox theory presumes that tensions are integral to complex systems and that sustainability depends on attending to contradictory yet interwoven demands simultaneously.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Globalization, innovation, hypercompetition, and social demands create more dynamic and intricate environments.
“Today, as globalization, innovation, hypercompetition, and social demands create more dynamic and intricate environments, paradox becomes α critical theoretical lens to understand and to lead contemporary organizations.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Without an integrating theory, studies attending to simultaneous opposites coexist across theoretical and phenomenological domains without interacting with one another.
“Minus an integrating theory, studies attending to simultaneous opposites coexist across theoretical and phenomenological domains without interacting with one another.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Research on hybrid identities, multiple logics, ambidexterity, and work/family integration all draw from a similar assumption about the simultaneous coexistence of competing alternatives.
“Research on hybrid identities, multiple logics, ambidexterity, and work/family integration all draw from α similar assumption about the simultaneous coexistence of competing alternatives and yet could more effectively inform one another about the management of tensions.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
A narrow trade-off perspective does not adequately represent reality.
“Paradox theory, however, warns that such a narrow trade-off perspective does not adequately represent reality (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
While differentiation allows engaging in both automation and augmentation, integration enables finding linkages that transcend the two poles.
“While such differentiation allows for engaging in both automation and augmentation, integration enables the finding of linkages that transcend the two poles (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
Acceptance must be complemented with a subsequent resolution strategy.
“While acceptance lays the groundwork for virtuous cycles, it has to be complemented with a subsequent resolution strategy (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
Paradox theory suggests that managing tensions through acceptance and resolution fosters sustainability.
“Paradox theory suggests that managing tensions through the dynamic strategies of acceptance and resolution fosters sustainability (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
According to paradox theory, organizational responses to tension fuel reinforcing cycles that can be either negative or positive.
“According to paradox theory, these organizational responses fuel reinforcing cycles that can be either negative or positive (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
A first step toward enabling a virtuous cycle is acceptance of tensions as paradoxical.
“A first step toward enabling such a virtuous cycle is the acceptance of the tensions as paradoxical (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
Paradoxes arise when two opposing elements are fundamentally linked to each other and coexist.
“paradoxes arise when two opposing elements are fundamentally linked to each other and coexist”
From Content Creators Between Platform Control and User Autonomy: The Role of Algorithms and Revenue Sharing (2023) · cites this paper as Smith and Lewis 2011
While a transition to automation relaxes the tension temporarily, the issue resurfaces when conditions change over time.
“While such a transition relaxes the tension temporarily, the issue resurfaces when conditions change over time (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
Organizations facing a salient AI tension tend to apply management strategies to address it.
“Organizations facing such a salient tension tend to apply management strategies to address it.”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
Tensions' systemic nature is a central tenet of paradox theorizing.
“Tensions' systemic nature is a central tenet of paradox theorizing (Jarzabkowski, Bednarek, Chalkias, & Cacciatori, 2019;Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
Paradoxical thinking requires a firm to have the cultures, structures, and processes to seek and integrate conflicting information.
“Paradoxical thinking requires a firm to have the cultures, structures, and processes to seek and integrate conflicting information (Smith and Lewis 2011).”
From Stakeholder marketing: theoretical foundations and required capabilities (2015) · cites this paper as Smith and Lewis 2011
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Clegg citation points outside the listed page range
MinorThe quotation is attributed to page 29 of Clegg (2002), but the reference list gives that work a page range of 1-10.
“Clegg proposed that paradoxes and dialectics become synonymous when "α thesis does not exist despite its antithesis, but because of it. Each pole of the dialectic needs the other to sustain its presence" (2002: 29).”
“Clegg, S. R. 2002. General introduction. In S. R. Clegg (Ed.), Management and organization paradoxes: 1–10.”
Fayol's year differs between Table 1 and the reference list
MinorTable 1 identifies Fayol's cited work as 1911, whereas both the reference list and a citation in the text identify Fayol as 1990.
“Foundational research | Fayol (1911), Taylor (1911)”
“Fayol, H. 1990. General principles of manαgement.”
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- Authors
- Smith, W. K., & Lewis, M. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Cincinnati (US)
- Venue
- Academy of Management Review
- Publisher
- Academy of Management
- Published
- 2011-04
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 381-403
- ISSN
- 0363-7425 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-3807
- OpenAlex
- W4231788326
- Cited by
- 1,631
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 242 · 2025: 316 · 2024: 184 · 2023: 163 · 2022: 134 · 2021: 127 · 2020: 77 · 2019: 97 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 78 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 33.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Academy of Management Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Management and Organizational Studies
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Innovation and Knowledge Management
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Management of Technology and Innovation › Organizational Management and Leadership
- Keywords
- paradox, paradoxical tensions, dynamic equilibrium model, organizing, organizational sustainability, peak performance
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