CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 92Environmental Sustainability in BusinessConsumer Perception and Purchasing BehaviorConsumer Behavior in Brand Consumption and Identification

Sustainable clothing: Why conspicuous consumption and greenwashing matter

Open access
Apaolaza, Vanessa, Policarpo, Manoela Costa, Hartmann, Patrick, Paredes, Mario R., D'Souza, Clare·2023·Business Strategy and the Environment
DOI 10.1002/bse.3335
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

This study analyzes the degree to which conspicuous consumption motives, environmental concern, perceived consumer effectiveness, trust in sustainable clothing brands, and perceived greenwashing trigger the purchase of sustainable clothing. The theoretical framework was tested with a representative online sample of the Australian population (N = 600). Results showed that all proposed antecedents have a positive relationship with the purchase of sustainable clothing, with the exception of perceived greenwashing, which decreases purchase intention. In addition, perceived consumer effectiveness positively moderated the effect of conspicuous consumption motives on purchasing. Conspicuous consumption motives had a stronger effect on purchase when perceived effectiveness was high, and this influence was reduced for lower perceived effectiveness. The interaction between conspicuous consumption and perceived efficacy had the strongest effect in the model. Our findings highlight the relevance of conspicuous consumption as a motive for switching to sustainable clothing and the likewise important role of perceived consumer effectiveness, which is a boundary condition for this effect. Findings also confirm the significant positive influence of environmental concern and trust in the sustainable clothing brand, while perceived greenwashing is a barrier to the adoption of sustainable clothing. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study tests an integrative model of sustainable clothing purchase among a representative Australian sample (N = 600), finding conspicuous consumption and perceived consumer effectiveness are the strongest positive drivers, while perceived greenwashing reduces purchase. Perceived consumer effectiveness positively moderates the conspicuous consumption effect, making their interaction the strongest predictor in the model.

Key findings

  • In the regression without interaction, all five antecedents were significant: conspicuous consumption (β = .32, t = 9.18, p < .001) and perceived consumer effectiveness (β = .31, t = 7.66, p < .001) had the strongest positive effects, followed by environmental concern (β = .13, t = 3.25, p < .001) and trust in sustainable clothing brands (β = .13, t = 3.80, p < .001); perceived greenwashing had a negative effect (β = −.08, t = −2.27, p = .02). The model explained R² = .42 of purchase variance.
  • Perceived consumer effectiveness positively moderated the effect of conspicuous consumption: the interaction term was significant (β = .51, t = 3.81, p < .001, 95% CI [0.25, 0.77]) and had the strongest influence of all variables on sustainable clothing purchase.
  • Conditional effects showed conspicuous consumption’s effect on purchase was lower at one standard deviation below the PCE mean (M − 1SD = 3.17, β = .28, t = 5.33, p < .001), higher at the mean (M = 4.50, β = .40, t = 9.25, p < .001), and highest at one standard deviation above the mean (M + 1SD = 5.84, β = .51, t = 9.78, p < .001).
  • With covariates, age had a small negative effect on purchase (β = −.06, t = −2.04, p = .04), while gender did not affect purchasing; overall results varied only marginally, and R² was .43 with the interaction term.

Methods

  • Nationally representative online survey of Australian consumers aged 18 years and older (N = 600, 58.7% female, M age = 47.84, SD = 17.64, age range 18–85), recruited by Qualtrics with quotas for age, gender, household income, and education.
  • Measures used 7-point Likert scales for conspicuous consumption motives, environmental concern, perceived consumer effectiveness, trust in sustainable clothing brands, and perceived greenwashing; purchase behavior was measured with two items on frequency of sustainable clothing purchase and purchase even at a higher price. No specific brands or styles were provided.
  • Main analysis was multiple linear regression in SPSS 26, first without and then with the conspicuous consumption × perceived consumer effectiveness interaction term; robustness checks included gender and age covariates, reliability/validity checks, common method variance assessment, and multicollinearity diagnostics.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the cross-sectional data limit causal and directional inferences; that multiple regression has limitations compared with methods such as structural equation modeling; that some participants may not have been aware or conscious of greenwashing before rating those items; that no specific sustainable fashion brands or styles were used; that the model explained 43% of variance in actual sustainable clothing purchases, leaving significant unexplained variance; and that the developed Western country context may limit generalizability.
  • The text also makes evident that purchase behavior is self-reported rather than observed, and that the design is not experimental, so causal claims are constrained beyond the stated cross-sectional limitation.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/bse.3335

Cites

110 of 110 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

1 of 56 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Previous research on greenwashing in the case of sustainable clothing has been scarce.

    “Previous research on greenwashing in the case of sustainable clothing has been scarce (e.g., Sailer et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sailer et al., 2022 source

      The Research Focus section identifies a gap in greenwashing and bluewashing research on sustainable small and medium-sized businesses, including fashion brands. It does not establish that research on greenwashing in sustainable clothing generally has been scarce; its stated gap is narrower. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    Perceived consumer effectiveness has a positive effect on the purchase of sustainable clothing.

    “Results showed that all proposed antecedents have a positive relationship with the purchase of sustainable clothing, with the exception of perceived greenwashing, which decreases purchase intention.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Conspicuous consumption motives have a positive effect on the purchase of sustainable clothing.

    “Our findings highlight the relevance of conspicuous consumption as a motive for switching to sustainable clothing and the likewise important role of perceived consumer effectiveness, which is a boundary condition for this effect.”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “Results showed that all proposed antecedents have a positive relationship with the purchase of sustainable clothing, with the exception of perceived greenwashing, which decreases purchase intention.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Environmental concern has a positive effect on the purchase of sustainable clothing.

    “Findings also confirm the significant positive influence of environmental concern and trust in the sustainable clothing brand, while perceived greenwashing is a barrier to the adoption of sustainable clothing.”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “Results showed that all proposed antecedents have a positive relationship with the purchase of sustainable clothing, with the exception of perceived greenwashing, which decreases purchase intention.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Trust in sustainable clothing brands has a positive effect on the purchase of sustainable clothing.

    “Findings also confirm the significant positive influence of environmental concern and trust in the sustainable clothing brand, while perceived greenwashing is a barrier to the adoption of sustainable clothing.”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “Results showed that all proposed antecedents have a positive relationship with the purchase of sustainable clothing, with the exception of perceived greenwashing, which decreases purchase intention.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 16
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 18

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The regression model was overall significant (p < .001) and explained a significant proportion of the variance of the dependent variable (R2 = .42).

    “The regression model was overall significant (p < .001)and explained a significant proportion of the variance of the dependent variable (R 2 = .42).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Conspicuous consumption motives have a stronger effect on purchase of sustainable clothing when perceived consumer effectiveness is high, and a weaker effect when perceived consumer effectiveness is low.

    “Conspicuous consumption motives had a stronger effect on purchase when perceived effectiveness was high, and this influence was reduced for lower perceived effectiveness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Gender did not affect sustainable clothing purchasing.

    “While gender did not affect purchasing, age had a small negative effect on purchase (β = À.06, t = À2.04,p = .04).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reported sustainable clothing purchases accurately reflect their actual purchasing behavior.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Age had a small negative effect on sustainable clothing purchase (β = -.06, t = -2.04, p = .04).

    “While gender did not affect purchasing, age had a small negative effect on purchase (β = À.06, t = À2.04,p = .04).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reported sustainable clothing purchases accurately reflect their actual purchasing behavior.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The effect of conspicuous consumption on sustainable clothing purchase was lower at one standard deviation below the perceived consumer effectiveness mean (β = .28), than at the mean (β = .40), and higher at one standard deviation above the mean (β = .51).

    “Conditional effect analysis showed that the effect of conspicuous consumption on purchase was lower at one standard deviation below the PCE mean value (M À 1SD = 3.17, β = .28,t = 5.33, p < .001)than at the mean value (M = 4.50, β = .40,t = 9.25, p < .001)and higher at one standard deviation above the mean (M + 1SD = 5.84, β = .51,t = 9.78, p < .001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reported sustainable clothing purchases accurately reflect their actual purchasing behavior.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The square root of the AVE of each construct was greater than its correlation with other constructs, confirming discriminant validity.

    “Table 2 presents the square roots of each construct's AVE in the diagonal showing that the square root of the AVE of each construct was greater than its correlation with other constructs-confirming discriminant validity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The literature lacks a clear perspective of which are the most relevant drivers of sustainable fashion purchases.

    “While there exist fragmented research findings, so far, the literature lacks a clear perspective of which are the most relevant drivers of sustainable fashion purchases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When consumers realize that certain green products present misleading information, a reputation for greenwashing is formed, which compels consumers to be more cautious about these products and increases their predisposition to discovering negative information about other brands in the sector.

    “When consumers realize that certain green products present misleading information, a reputation for greenwashing is formed, which compels consumers to be more cautious about these products and increases their predisposition to discovering negative information about other brands in the sector (Chen & Chang, 2013a;Nyilasy et al., 2014;Wang et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Chen & Chang, 2013a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Nyilasy et al., 2014 source
    • cites Wang et al., 2019 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although consumers are concerned about the environment, environmental concern will not always translate into environmentally friendly behavior.

    “However, although consumers are concerned about the environment, some studies revealed a significant concernbehavior gap in the consumer behavior observed in green consumption, and environmental concern will not always translate into environmentally friendly behavior (Cerri et al., 2018;He et al., 2021;Landry et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cerri et al., 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites He et al., 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Landry et al., 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    For conspicuous consumption to provide the expected benefits, it is necessary that the individual believes that others perceive a real, as opposed to an insignificant or phony, contribution to sustainability.

    “For conspicuous consumption to provide the expected benefits, it is thus necessary that the individual believes that others perceive a real, as opposed to an insignificant or phony contribution to sustainability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Conspicuous displays signal the personal image individuals want to project and facilitate social relationships.

    “Conspicuous displays-whether through goods, clothing, or actionssignal the personal image individuals want to project and facilitate social relationships (Amatulli et al., 2018;Goffman, 1959).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Amatulli et al., 2018 source
    • cites Goffman, 1959 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    When a consumer feels that the real environmental impact of sustainable clothing is negligible, they will not be motivated to display their environmental engagement by purchasing these products.

    “When a consumer feels that the real environmental impact of sustainable clothing is negligible, they will not be motivated to display their environmental engagement by purchasing these products.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The average variance extracted and composite reliability ranged from 0.65 to 0.76 and from 0.84 to 0.92, respectively, above the minimum recommended levels.

    “The average variance extracted (AVE) and composite reliability (CR) ranged from 0.65 to 0.76 and from 0.84 to 0.92, respectively, well above the minimum recommended level of 0.5 for AVE and 0.6 for CR (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fornell & Larcker, 1981 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Costly signaling theory proposes that humans engage in costly behaviors to broadcast surplus genetic fitness and abundance of resources.

    “Costly signaling theory (Grafen, 1990;Zahavi, 1977) proposes from an evolutionary psychology perspective that humans engage in costly behaviors, that is, behaviors that are not immediately necessary for the survival of the individual, to broadcast to others that they have surplus genetic fitness and abundance of resources.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Grafen, 1990 source
    • cites Zahavi, 1977 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisecitation

    Green trust has been identified in previous research as a significant driver of green purchases.

    “We further address the effect of consumers' trust in sustainable clothing brands, since green trust has been identified in previous research as a significant driver of green purchases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    General suspicion of greenwashing in the fashion industry likely will negatively impact purchases of sustainably labeled clothing products.

    “In consequence, consumers might develop a general suspicion of greenwashing in the fashion industry, which likely will negatively impact their purchases of sustainably labeled clothing products.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    A single factor over all measurement items explained 26% of overall variance, less than the 50% threshold, providing evidence against significant common method variance.

    “A single factor over all measurement items explained 26% of overall variance, significantly less than the 50% threshold for common method variance concern, providing evidence against significant common method variance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Social identity theory explains the individual's drive to enhance their self-concept through conformity with group norms, which reward individuals with social approval.

    “Social identity theory explains the individual's drive to enhance their self-concept through conformity with group norms (Turner & Oakes, 1986), which reward individuals with social approval (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Turner & Oakes, 1986 source
    • cites Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The effect of attitude on purchase intention regarding hybrid and electric vehicles is more pronounced among consumers with a high level of PCE.

    “Higueras-Castillo et al. (2019) found that the effect of attitude on purchase intention regarding hybrid and electric vehicles is more pronounced among consumers with a high level of PCE.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Higueras-Castillo et al., 2019 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    This research is the first to integrate conspicuous consumption, environmental concern, perceived consumer effectiveness, trust in sustainable clothing brands, and perceived greenwashing into a unifying framework and to examine their effects together on reported actual purchasing behavior.

    “This research is the first to integrate these variables into a unifying framework and to examine their effects together on reported actual purchasing behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The regression residuals were approximately normally distributed, as indicated by a normal P-P plot nearly overlapping the diagonal (Durbin-Watson = 1.90).

    “assumptions testing, the normal probability (P-P) plot of standardized regression residuals was nearly overlapping the diagonal, confirming approximately normal distributed errors (Durbin-Watson = 1.90).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The random sampling method rules out sampling bias.

    “The random sampling method rules out sampling bias.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    This finding extends research by Neumann et al. (2020), who found that trust is an antecedent of purchase intention in the fast fashion sector.

    “This finding extends research by Neumann et al. (2020), who found that trust is an antecedent of purchase intention in the fast fashion sector.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Neumann et al. (2020) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The negative effect of perceived greenwashing and the positive influence of trust in the sustainability of the brand together advance knowledge of consumer responses to the authenticity of green marketing claims.

    “Fourth, the negative effect of perceived greenwashing and the positive influence of trust in the sustainability of the brand together advance our knowledge of consumer responses to the authenticity of green marketing claims.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The quality of the sample and responses is backed by Qualtrics's internal data control.

    “The quality of the sample and responses is backed by Qualtrics's internal data control.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Overall results varied only marginally by introducing gender and age as covariates.

    “Overall results varied only marginally by introducing the covariates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reported sustainable clothing purchases accurately reflect their actual purchasing behavior.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    This study is the first to propose and show that perceived consumer effectiveness belief does not only affect purchases directly but also constitutes a boundary condition for conspicuous consumption motives.

    “On the other hand, our study is the first to propose and show that this belief does not only affect purchases directly but that it also constitutes a boundary condition for conspicuous consumption motives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Green trust is based on the belief in the product's potential to protect the environment.

    “Green trust is based on the belief in the product's potential to protect the environment (Wang et al., 2018;Wei et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Wang et al., 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Wei et al., 2017 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Consumers may find themselves doubting whether a specific brand of green clothes is truly sustainable or whether the sustainability claim is just a marketing trick.

    “Consumers may find themselves doubting whether a specific brand of green clothes is truly sustainable or whether the sustainability claim is just a marketing trick (Neumann et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Neumann et al., 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some companies mask negative information about their impact or only partially disclose this information, while others intentionally mislead using false advertisements claiming environmental responsibility.

    “Some companies mask negative information about their impact or only partially disclose this information (Lyon & Maxwell, 2011;Marquis et al., 2016), while others intentionally mislead using false advertisements claiming that they are environmentally responsible when, in fact, they are not (Martínez et al., 2020;Szabo & Webster, 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Lyon & Maxwell, 2011 source
    • cites Marquis et al., 2016 source
    • cites Martínez et al., 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The multiple regression approach has some limitations compared with other analytic methods such as structural equation modeling.

    “Also, the analysis is based on a multiple regression approach, which has some limitations compared with other analytic methods such as structural equation modeling.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Consumers seem to perceive that, for others to perceive their environmental commitment, they must first believe themselves that they are making a noteworthy contribution to the environment.

    “Consumers seem to perceive that, for others to perceive their environmental commitment, they must first believe themselves that they are making a noteworthy contribution to the environment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
32 of 32

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' self-reported sustainable clothing purchases accurately reflect their actual purchasing behavior.

    “The questionnaire then assessed the participants' actual purchases of sustainable fashion, as well as their perceptions of greenwashing by clothing companies, trust in sustainable clothing brands, environmental concern, perceived consumer effectiveness, and conspicuous consumption motives when buying sustainable clothing.”
1 of 1

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Green-trust coefficient decreases rather than increases

    Minor

    The text says the other variables showed small increases after adding the interaction, but Table 3 shows green trust declining from β = .13 to β = .10.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Datamonitor, 2021, Market line industry profile (report)—Apparel retail in Australia, London, UK
  2. Euromonitor International, 2021, The Australian consumer in 2021
  3. Remy N., 2016, Style that's sustainable: A new fast‐fashion formula, McKinsey Global Institute
  4. Veblen V., 1899, The theory of the leisure class

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Apaolaza, V., Policarpo, M. C., Hartmann, P., Paredes, M. R., & D'Souza, C.
Affiliations
  • University of the Basque Country (ES)
  • Universidad del Rosario (CO)
  • La Trobe Business School La Trobe University Melbourne Australia
Corresponding author
Apaolaza, Vanessa
ORCID
Venue
Business Strategy and the Environment
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2022-12-21
Volume
32
Issue
6
Pages
3766-3782
ISSN
  • 0964-4733 (ISSN-L)
  • 1099-0836
DOI
10.1002/bse.3335
OpenAlex
W4312184551
Semantic Scholar
f8134d8df5e50a4f567f5b3d1b8baf3754008c03
Cited by
92
References
107
Citations by year
2026: 24 · 2025: 40 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 7
FWCI
13.50
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Business Strategy and the Environment (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Repositorio Institucional E-DocUR (Universidad Del Rosario) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
  • Repositorio Institucional E-DocUR (Universidad Del Rosario) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • La Trobe University (cc-by)
Funders
  • Fundación Emilio Soldevilla para la Investigación y el Desarrollo en Economía de la Empresa (FESIDE 03‐21)
  • La Trobe University
  • Eusko Jaurlaritza (IT1731‐22)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › Environmental Sustainability in Business
  • Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › Consumer Perception and Purchasing Behavior
  • Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › Consumer Behavior in Brand Consumption and Identification
Keywords
sustainable fashion, conspicuous consumption, greenwashing, purchase intention, perceived consumer effectiveness, environmental concern, brand trust, consumer behavior

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-23.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-23.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review