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N-back working memory paradigm: a meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies.
Open accessAbstract
One of the most popular experimental paradigms for functional neuroimaging studies of working memory has been the n‐back task, in which subjects are asked to monitor the identity or location of a series of verbal or nonverbal stimuli and to indicate when the currently presented stimulus is the same as the one presented n trials previously. We conducted a quantitative meta‐analysis of 668 sets of activation coordinates in Talairach space reported in 24 primary studies of n‐back task variants manipulating process (location vs. identity monitoring) and content (verbal or nonverbal) of working memory. We found the following cortical regions were activated robustly (voxelwise false discovery rate = 1%): lateral premotor cortex; dorsal cingulate and medial premotor cortex; dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex; frontal poles; and medial and lateral posterior parietal cortex. Subsidiary meta‐analyses based on appropriate subsets of the primary data demonstrated broadly similar activation patterns for identity monitoring of verbal stimuli and both location and identity monitoring of nonverbal stimuli. There was also some evidence for distinct frontoparietal activation patterns in response to different task variants. The functional specializations of each of the major cortical components in the generic large‐scale frontoparietal system are discussed. We conclude that quantitative meta‐analysis can be a powerful tool for combining results of multiple primary studies reported in Talairach space. Here, it provides evidence both for broadly consistent activation of frontal and parietal cortical regions by various versions of the n‐back working memory paradigm, and for process‐ and content‐specific frontoparietal activation by working memory. Hum Brain Mapp 25:46–59, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
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In the citing paper
“Two types of tasks are frequently used to measure individual differences in working memory capacity-complex span tasks and the n-back”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2005
In the citing paper
“In neuroscientific research, by contrast, the n-back has been the most prevalent measure of working memory capacity (Owen et al., 2005;Wager & Smith, 2003).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2005
In the citing paper
“For working memory, the forward inference map revealed the most consistent associations in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior insula and dorsal medial frontal cortex (MFC), replicating previous findings15,20.”
From Large-scale automated synthesis of human functional neuroimaging data. (2011) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“these tests involve DLPFC (Owen et al. 2005, Zakzanis et al. 2005) and are sensitive to mTBI (Arciniega et al. 2021, Li et al. 2023).”
From Mild traumatic brain injury alters function in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: a TMS-EEG study (2025) · cites this paper as Owen et al. 2005
In the citing paper
“The n-back task is a common and well-established continuous performance test for measurements of working memory performance [33], [34].”
From Dose-dependent effects of endotoxin on neurobehavioral functions in humans (2011) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Thus, in the current study we employed a computerized n-back paradigm (2-back version), a well-evaluated sensitive tool to analyze working memory functions [34], [41], [42].”
From Dose-dependent effects of endotoxin on neurobehavioral functions in humans (2011) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“The n-back task has been studied extensively in the context of traditional activation and connectivity analyses (38, 39), identifying a large (executive) working-memory network dominated by frontal and parietal regions.”
From Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans (2015) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“We found 46% of the mapped nodes belonging to the frontoparietal module identified by us, whereas 27% belonged to the somatomotor module and 12% belonged to the frontal module.”
From Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans (2015) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“First, activation studies and metaanalysis of these tasks (39) usually investigate main effects of working-memory load and not within-load dynamics let alone per-trial effects in fMRI data.”
From Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans (2015) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Attentional control and WM rely on a common set of neural structures, many of which have been implicated as dysfunctional in ADHD.”
From Attentional Control Activation Relates to Working Memory in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [16]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses of both the Stroop task (14,15) and WM tasks (16,17) have implicated bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), bilateral inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), inferior parietal lobule, and precuneus.”
From Attentional Control Activation Relates to Working Memory in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [16]
In the citing paper
“Prefrontal areas are involved in executive control (Owen et al., 2005) and emotional regulation processes (Ochsner and Gross, 2005), and have an inhibitory effect on limbic brain regions such as the amygdala, insula, hippocampus and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which are associated with intrinsic emotional reactivity (Drevets and Raichle, 1998; Phillips et al., 2003).”
From Meta-analyses of the neural mechanisms and predictors of response to psychotherapy in depression and anxiety (2018) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2005
In the citing paper
“this region also being associated with attentional control and emotional regulation (Hofmann et al., 2012; Kane and Engle, 2002; Owen et al., 2005; Wager and Smith, 2003).”
From Meta-analyses of the neural mechanisms and predictors of response to psychotherapy in depression and anxiety (2018) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2005
In the citing paper
“The prefrontal cortex is a key node in the distributed cortical network recruited during WM (Owen et al. 2005;Fuster 2008) and exhibits altered inhibitory microcircuitry in schizophrenia (Lewis et al. 2005;Bitanihirwe et al. 2009).”
From Linking microcircuit dysfunction to cognitive impairment: Effects of disinhibition associated with schizophrenia in a cortical working memory model (2014) · cites this paper as Owen et al. 2005
In the citing paper
“The n-back paradigm is commonly used alongside functional neuroimaging, where it activates a network of frontoparietal areas [51].”
From Wearable technology for high-frequency cognitive and mood assessment in major depressive disorder: longitudinal observational study (2019) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“fNIRS findings in this study were predominantly left-lateralized, consistent with the left prefrontal cortex’s dominant role in verbal working memory, language-related executive processes, and cognitive control—as supported by prior neuroimaging literature 32 , 33 .”
From Naturalistic fNIRS assessment reveals decline in executive function and altered prefrontal activation following social media use in college students (2025) · cites this paper as [33]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E.
- Affiliations
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit (GB)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- The University of Texas at San Antonio Health Science Center (US)
- Venue
- Human Brain Mapping
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2005-04-21
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 46-59
- ISSN
- 1065-9471 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-0193
- PMC
- PMC6871745
- OpenAlex
- W2000697043
- Cited by
- 3,560
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 175 · 2025: 212 · 2024: 242 · 2023: 206 · 2022: 200 · 2021: 234 · 2020: 204 · 2019: 230 · 2018: 243 · 2017: 218 · 2016: 195 · 2015: 207 · 2014: 191 · 2013: 181 · 2012: 161
- FWCI
- 24.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Human Brain Mapping (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Keywords
- n-back task, working memory, functional neuroimaging, brain activation, prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, premotor cortex
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Diagnostic Imaging, Humans, Memory, Psychomotor Performance, Meta-Analysis as Topic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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