High Involvement Versus Pathological Involvement in Video Games: a Crucial Distinction for Ensuring the Validity and Utility of Gaming Disorder
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The evolution of the components model of addiction has often been misattributed to Iain Brown.
“The evolution of the components model of addiction has often been misattributed to the psychologist Iain Brown.”
From The evolution of the 'components model of addiction' and the need for a confirmatory approach in conceptualizing behavioral addictions (2020) · cites this paper as [16]
There is a clear and differentiated distinction between high involvement and pathological involvement in gaming.
“In their latest paper on gaming disorder, Billieux et al. (16) made the case that there is a distinction between excessive involvement in gaming and addiction to it. I cannot think of a single researcher working in the behavioral addiction field who would not agree that there is a clear and differentiated distinction between high involvement and pathological involvement.”
From The evolution of the 'components model of addiction' and the need for a confirmatory approach in conceptualizing behavioral addictions (2020) · cites this paper as [16]
The problem lies in the operationalization of salience in many psychometric instruments based on the components model: they do not necessarily include a negative wording.
“Where the problem really lies is that the operationalization of salience in many psychometric instruments based on my model does not necessarily include a negative wording and it is this aspect that Billieux et al. (16) concentrated on in their paper, not the operational definition of salience in the actual components model of addiction.”
From The evolution of the 'components model of addiction' and the need for a confirmatory approach in conceptualizing behavioral addictions (2020) · cites this paper as [16]
Many researchers in the behavioral addiction field (the overwhelming majority including Griffiths) adhere to the confirmatory approach where behavioral addictions are classified on the basis of criteria of substance use disorders or behavioral addictions such as gambling disorder.
“Another key criticism made by Billieux et al. (16) is that many researchers in the behavioral addiction field (and I would argue it is the overwhelming majority including myself) adhere to the confirmatory approach where behavioral addictions are classified on the basis of criteria of substance use disorders or behavioral addictions such as gambling disorder.”
From The evolution of the 'components model of addiction' and the need for a confirmatory approach in conceptualizing behavioral addictions (2020) · cites this paper as [16]
Almost all the examples of 'moot behavioural addictions' that Billieux et al. cited - as did the paper by Kardefelt-Winther et al. - are papers that Griffiths co-authored.
“Finally, I could not help but notice that almost all the examples of 'moot behavioural addictions' that Billieux et al. (16) cited - as did the paper by Kardefelt-Winther et al. (31) - are papers that I co-authored.”
From The evolution of the 'components model of addiction' and the need for a confirmatory approach in conceptualizing behavioral addictions (2020) · cites this paper as [16]
The components model of addiction defines tolerance in relation to mood modifying experiences which are rooted in more negative than positive experiences.
“Finally, Billieux et al. (16) made observations about the problems in operationalizing tolerance (in relation to gaming rather than addiction more generally); but again, the components model of addiction defines tolerance in relation to mood modifying experiences which as explained above are rooted in more negative than positive experiences:”
From The evolution of the 'components model of addiction' and the need for a confirmatory approach in conceptualizing behavioral addictions (2020) · cites this paper as [16]
Some authors have reported that gamers who do not exhibit evidence of other psychopathology or functional impairment may endorse items intended to parallel substance addiction, challenging their diagnostic utility.
“Some authors have reported that gamers who do not exhibit evidence of other psychopathology or functional impairment may endorse such items intended to parallel substance addiction 174-176 , thus challenging their diagnostic utility 172 .”
An advantage of the more streamlined ICD-11 conceptualization of gaming disorder compared with DSM-5's is its clarity regarding the scope and clinical description of the condition, eschewing some traditional addiction concepts that have been criticized or have received mixed support as applied to problem gaming.
“An advantage of the more streamlined ICD-11 conceptualization of gaming disorder as compared to DSM-5's has been its clarity regarding the scope and clinical description of the condition, eschewing some traditional addiction concepts that have been criticized or have received mixed support as applied to problem gaming 140,141,172 .”
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Problematic online gaming and the COVID-19 pandemic
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Self-citationScreening and assessment tools for gaming disorder: A comprehensive systematic review
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“GD tools may need to reflect some of these structural elements in gaming activities, such as additional questions to examine different behaviors and consequences related to different types of games and modes of access (e.g., smartphones, virtual reality) (King, Koster, & Billieux, 2019).”
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“garding the diagnostic validity of ICD-11 criteria is not yet available, these preliminary data suggest that the conservative approach of the ICD-11may better avoid false positives in screening [1,26].”
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“Motivational factors may have a crucial role in differentiating between high commitment and pathological engagement in video games (Király, Tóth, Urbán, Demetrovics, & Maraz, 2017), which is essential to avoid overdiagnosis and pathologize normal behavior (Billieux, Flayelle, Rumpf, & Stein, 2019).”
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“When FPU and PPU were assessed simultaneously, one study found a weak and negative association with sexual functioning problems among females (and males) (Blais-Lecours et al., 2016).”
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“(16) concentrated on in their paper, not the operational definition of salience in the actual components model of addiction.”
BackgroundInfluentialOvercoming the unitary exploration of binge-watching: A cluster analytical approach
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“…from previous work that conceptualized problematic binge-watching as a maladaptive emotion regulation strategy (Flayelle, Maurage, Vögele, Karila, & Billieux, 2019), emotion laden impulsivity, which is a strong predictor of maladaptive behaviors serving to regulate affective states through the…”
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“In another LPA model, we will examine problematic and non-problematic pornography use profiles using the PPCS, BPS, frequency of pornography use, and moral incongruence towards pornography use as profile indicators, building on the engagement and moral incongruence models (Billieux, 2012; Billieux et al., 2019; Grubbs…”
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Self-citationGiardina, A., Schimmenti, A., Starčević, V., King, D. L., Blasi, M. D., & Billieux, J. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108187 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationWhelan, E., Golden, W., & Tarafdar, M. (2022) · Internet Research · doi:10.1108/intr-06-2021-0394 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Lewczuk, K., Wizła, M., Glica, A., Potenza, M. N., Lew-Starowicz, M., & Kraus, S. W. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2022.00076 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Ismail, N., Tajjudin, A. I. A., Jaafar, H., Jaafar, N. R. N., Baharudin, A., & Ibrahim, N. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182211870 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Excessive and pathological Internet use – Risk-behavior or psychopathology?
Kaess, M., Klar, J., Kindler, J., Parzer, P., Brunner, R. M., Carli, V., Sarchiapone, M., Hoven, C. W., Apter, A., Balázs, J., et al. (2021) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107045 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Billieux and colleagues showed the importance of this distinction in Internet Gaming Disorder, pointing at the criterion of functional impairment caused by problematic gaming included in the ICD-11 (Billieux et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialKoban, K., Biehl, J., Bornemeier, J., & Ohler, P. (2021) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2021.1946154 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“On the downside, however, research also found substantial evidence for a link between problematic gaming and both physical and psychological health issues (Männikkö et al., 2020), which culminated in the inclusion of Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) into the Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Ment…”
BackgroundGao, L., Gan, Y., Whittal, A., & Lippke, S. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17114056 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“While specific internet activities have been associated with problematic internet use [30], to our knowledge, types of internet use (i.”
BackgroundKing, D. L., Russell, A., & Hing, N. (2020) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-020-00311-1 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Shabahang, R., Kim, S., Hosseinkhanzadeh, A. A., Aruguete, M. S., & Kakabaraee, K. (2022) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2022.2157287 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“This result suggests that mood modification and conflict appear to be peripheral to doomscrolling, raising the issue of whether doomscrolling qualifies as an addiction (see, Billieux et al., 2019).”
BackgroundDisordered gaming in esports: Comparing professional and non-professional gamers
Maldonado-Murciano, L., Guilera, G., Montag, C., & Pontes, H. M. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107342 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“…particularly when it comes to professional gamers as it is key to distinguish high (professional) gaming engagement from disordered gaming (Billieux et al., 2019), eliciting functional impairments (see M ¨ annikk ¨ o, Ruotsalainen, Miettunen, Pontes, & K ¨ a ¨ ari ¨ ainen, 2020; Moore,…”
Bőthe, B., Vaillancourt‐Morel, M., Dion, J., Štulhofer, A., & Bergeron, S. (2021) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/adb0000722 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…of PPU, as an individual may report some of these characteristics without problematic use, for example, due to high but nonproblematic engagement (Billieux et al., 2019; B ő the, Lonza, et al., 2020; To ´ th-Király et al., 2018), or moral incongru-ence concerning pornography use (Grubbs, Perry,…”
Gaming passion contributes to the definition and identification of problematic gaming
Infanti, A., Valls-Serrano, C., Perales, J. C., Vögele, C., & Billieux, J. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107805 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…indicative of a problem (i.e., conflict, relapse, withdrawal) and “ peripheral ” features, which rather reflect non necessary problematic involvement (i.e., salience, tolerance, mood modification) (Billieux et al., 2019; Brunborg et al., 2013; Charlton & Danforth, 2007; Deleuze et al., 2018).”
Self-citationKim, D., & Lee, J. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18147275 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“While internet games played on a PC, such as World of Warcraft, require a gamer to invest a large amount of time and concentration [25], games played on a mobile phone usually do not require prolonged involvement.”
BackgroundNovel approaches for treating Internet Gaming Disorder: A review of technology-based interventions
Górowska, M. P., Tokarska, K., Zhou, X., Gola, M. K., & Li, Y. (2022) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2022.152312 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
How much gaming is too much? An analysis based on psychological distress
Katz, D., Horváth, Z., Pontes, H. M., Koncz, P., Demetrovics, Z., & Király, O. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2024.00036 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“This interpretation is also supported by previous literature in which the time spent gaming appeared to be a poor indicator of addiction (Billieux, Flayelle, Rumpf, & Stein, 2019).”
Augsburger, M., Wenger, A., Haug, S., Achab, S., Khazaal, Y., Billieux, J., & Schaub, M. P. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2020.00051 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationWhere to put Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder (CSBD)? Phenomenology matters •
Rumpf, H., & Montag, C. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2022.00039 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationDSM-5 Internet gaming disorder among a sample of Mexican first-year college students
Borges, G., Orozco, R., Benjet, C., Martínez Martínez, K. I., Contreras, E. V., Jiménez Pérez, A. L., Peláez Cedrés, A. J., Hernández Uribe, P. C., Díaz Couder, M. A. C., Gutierrez-Garcia, R. A., et al. (2019) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.8.2019.62 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationFlayelle, M., Elhai, J. D., Maurage, P., Vögele, C., Brevers, D., Baggio, S., & Billieux, J. (2022) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2022.101880 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“…substantiate the recent call for a systematic differentiation between non-harmful versus problematic involvement in binge-watching (Flayelle et al., 2020a; Flayelle and Lannoy, 2021; Steins-Loeber et al., 2020), as in other online recreational activities (e.g., video gaming; Billieux et al., 2019).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGriffiths, M. D. (2022) · doi:10.1556/2006.2022.00029 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationZhai, Z. W., Hoff, R. A., Howell, J. C., Wampler, J., Krishnan‐Sarin, S., & Potenza, M. N. (2019) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.11.005 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“In light of concerns for potentially overpathologizing normal gaming behavior, recent reports suggest that high levels of gaming involvement are not necessarily problematic (Billieux et al., 2019).”
BackgroundThe Pitfalls of Recycling Substance-Use Disorder Criteria to Diagnose Behavioral Addictions
Flayelle, M., Schimmenti, A., Starčević, V., & Billieux, J. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003032762-34 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationGriffiths, M. D. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2022.00025 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Flayelle, M., Castro‐Calvo, J., Vögele, C., Astur, R. S., Ballester‐Arnal, R., Challet‐Bouju, G., Brand, M., Cárdenas‐López, G., Devos, G., Elkholy, H. A., et al. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106410 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“…2015; Tukachinsky & Eyal, 2018) that should be further investigated and characterized (Brookes & Ellithorpe, 2017; Flayelle, Maurage, V€ogele, Karila, & Billieux, 2019a; Merikivi, Bragge, Scornavacca, & Verhagen, 2019; Shim et al., 2018; Spruance, Karmakar, Kruger, & Vaterlaus, 2017; Starosta et…”
Self-citationPrevention approaches to problem gaming: A large-scale qualitative investigation
Stevens, M., Delfabbro, P., & King, D. L. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106611 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Mao, E. (2021) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107056 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Problematic internet use prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic
Zarco-Alpuente, A., Ciudad-Fernández, V., Ballester‐Arnal, R., Billieux, J., Gil‐Llario, M. D., King, D. L., Montoya‐Castilla, I., García, P. S., & Castro‐Calvo, J. (2021) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2021-4-1 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“These questions were designed ad hoc for the present study based on past research having operationalized key features to consider when assessing problematic and addictive online behaviors (Billieux et al., 2019; Kardefelt-Winther et al., 2017).”
MethodSelf-citationCarragher, N., Billieux, J., Bowden‐Jones, H., Achab, S., Potenza, M. N., Rumpf, H., Long, J., Demetrovics, Z., Gentile, D., Hodgins, D., et al. (2022) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15780 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationToward a delineation of the differences between high engagement and problem gaming
Slack, J. D., Delfabbro, P., & King, D. L. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100462 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“…some forms of non-problematic intensive gaming may demonstrate some overlap with features of problem gaming, such as preoccupation and prioritisation of gaming activities (King & Delfabbro, 2019; Larrieu et al., 2022; Billieux et al., 2019; Kiraly et al., 2017; Charlton & Danforth, 2007).”
BackgroundLarrieu, M., Fombouchet, Y., Billieux, J., & Décamps, G. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.107824 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationLarrieu, M., Billieux, J., & Décamps, G. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107363 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationWhelan, E., Laato, S., Islam, A. K. M. N., & Billieux, J. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0246432 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“The results of the current study thus suggest that similarly to what was found in relation to other digital technologies [67,68,72,73], high involvement in mobile gambling is not essentially problematic.”
BackgroundMethodResultSelf-citationNeurogaming in Virtual Reality: A Review of Video Game Genres and Cognitive Impact
GomezRomero-Borquez, J., Del-Valle-Soto, C., Puerto-Flores, J. A. D., Briseño, R. A., & Aldás, J. V. (2024) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics13091683 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Stevens, M., Delfabbro, P., & King, D. L. (2021) · The Journal of Primary Prevention · doi:10.1007/s10935-021-00629-0 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“, preoccupation, withdrawal, tolerance) have been criticized for being too sensitive (e.g., capturing highly engaged players; Billieux et al., 2019).”
BackgroundDell’Osso, B. M., Bernardo, I. D., Vismara, M. E. M., Piccoli, E., Giorgetti, F., Molteni, L., Fineberg, N. A., Virzì, C., Bowden‐Jones, H., Truzoli, R., et al. (2021) · Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health · doi:10.2174/1745017902117010061 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
ADHD-Gaming Disorder Comorbidity in Children and Adolescents: A Narrative Review
Salerno, L., Becheri, L., & Pallanti, S. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9101528 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Matias, C. N., Cardoso, J., Cavaca, M. L., Cardoso, S., Giro, R., Vaz, J. R., Couto, P. A., Dores, A. R., Ferreira, T. B., Tinsley, G. M., et al. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.107901 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Wegmann, E., Müller, S. M., Kessling, A., Joshi, M., Ihle, E., Wolf, O. T., & Müller, A. (2023) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2023.152392 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Koós, M., Demetrovics, Z., Griffiths, M. D., & Bőthe, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.837315 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Kiatsakared, P., & Chen, K.-Y. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su141912364 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Research evidence also suggests that high engagement in gaming is not necessarily problematic and, for most individuals, gaming appears to be adaptive [68] and may reduce loneliness [69].”
BackgroundBallou, N., & Zendle, D. I. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.107140 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Mindfulness mediates relations between anxiety with problematic smartphone use severity
Hallauer, C., Rooney, E. A., Billieux, J., Hall, B. J., & Elhai, J. (2022) · Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2022-1-4 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“To date, no consensus has been reached on relevant criteria to speak of addictive behavior or a “Use Disorder” associated with the smartphone or with the internet, and concerns of over-pathologizing normal behavior remain (e.g., Billieux et al., 2019; Starcevic et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSocial norms and problematic gaming among adolescents: The role of Internet use coping motives
Angelini, F., Pivetta, E., Marino, C., Canale, N., Spada, M. M., & Vieno, A. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107865 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Musetti, A., Brazzi, F., Folli, M. C., Plazzi, G., & Franceschini, C. (2020) · The Open Psychology Journal · doi:10.2174/1874350102013010242 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Internet-use disorders: A theoretical framework for their conceptualization and diagnosis
Wegmann, E., Billieux, J., & Brand, M. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822201-0.00022-8 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationPerson-centred interventions for problem gaming: a stepped care approach
Park, J. J., Wilkinson-Meyers, L., King, D. L., & Rodda, S. N. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-10749-1 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Subtyping treatment-seeking gaming disorder patients
Granero, R., Fernández-Aranda, F., Castro-Calvo, J., Billieux, J., Valero-Solís, S., Mora-Maltas, B., Rivas-Pérez, S., Valenciano-Mendoza, E., del Pino-Gutiérrez, A., Gómez-Peña, M., et al. (2021) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107086 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…subtypes of problematic videogaming in a large community-based sample of Massively Multi-Player Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPG) gamers based on candidate psychological risk factors, and identified five subgroups presenting varying degrees of problematic gaming impact (Billieux et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSkripkauskaite, S., Fazel, M., & the OxWell Study Team (2022) · JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting · doi:10.2196/41480 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Despite the ongoing debate about the nature and existence of problematic gaming [20-23], a new diagnosis for gaming disorder is now included in the International Classification of Diseases, Eleventh Revision [24].”
BackgroundMontag, C., Yang, H., Wu, A. M. S., Ali, R., & Elhai, J. D. (2025) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.15337 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“26 In line with work on different involvement levels with video games, 25 recent empirical/theoretical observations underline the importance of studying functional impairment to understand addictive-like behavior.”
Hakami, A. Y., Ahmad, R. G., Alsharif, A., Ashqar, A., AlHarbi, F. A., Sayes, M., Bafail, A., Alqrni, A., & Khan, M. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.727798 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Furthermore, it has been associated with low well-being, negative consequences, and other internet addictions (6, 7, 12).”
BackgroundRazum, J., & Huić, A. (2023) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2023.2254856 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Previously, these gamers were de fi ned as playing with harmonious passion (Billieux et al. 2019) and not experiencing signi fi cant negative consequences.”
InfluentialEl-Sayed, A. A. I., Alsenany, S. A., Asal, M. G. R., & Alasqah, I. (2025) · Journal of Nursing Management · doi:10.1155/jonm/8458533 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Tese fve dimensions, therefore, are not arbitrarily chosen but emerge directly from robust theoretical and clinical traditions [12, 17, 18].”
InfluentialPsychometric properties of the Teruel Orthorexia Scale (TOS) among a French–Canadian adult sample
Maïano, C., Aimé, A., Almenara, C. A., Gagnon, C., & Barrada, J. R. (2022) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/s40519-022-01482-8 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“[44] indicated that “high involvement in video games exists and is not necessarily pathological” and the same can be said for other activities and interests.”
BackgroundThe mediator's role of communication skills in the effect of social skills on digital game addiction
ERDOĞAN, Ö. (2023) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103948 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Symptomatology, risk, and protective factors of gaming disorder: A network analytical approach
Tang, M. C., Ebrahimi, O. V., & Cheng, C. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.107899 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Stavropoulos, V., Zarate, D., Prokofieva, M., de Berg, N. V., Karimi, L., Alesi, A. G., Richards, M., Bennet, S., & Griffiths, M. D. (2023) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2023.00062 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Giardina, A., Fournier, L., Starčević, V., King, D. L., Blasi, M. D., Schimmenti, A., & Billieux, J. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2024.00059 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationWang, Y., Long, J., Liu, Y.-H., Liu, T., & Billieux, J. (2020) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-020-2449-0 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“, they often fail to distinguish heavy but not problematic use from pathological use) [35].”
BackgroundSelf-citationGame Transfer Phenomena and Problematic Interactive Media Use: Dispositional and Media Habit Factors
de Gortari, A. B. O., & Gackenbach, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.585547 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“The unhealthy and pathological use of interactive media has mainly been investigated with a focus on dysregulated use as supported by paradigms of addiction (Kuss and Griffiths, 2012; Billieux et al., 2019; Montag et al., 2019).”
BackgroundPlayer-avatar interactions in habitual and problematic gaming: A qualitative investigation
Green, R., Delfabbro, P., & King, D. L. (2021) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2021.00038 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Sibilla, F., Musetti, A., & Mancini, T. (2021) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2021-3-1 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“The literature had already pointed out that involvement with video games can be pleasant (Billieux et al., 2019) and that pleasure is one of the factors that explains a progressive increase in gaming that has nothing to do with pathology (Kardefelt-Winther, 2015).”
BackgroundSibilla, F., Imperato, C., Mancini, T., & Musetti, A. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107368 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Burén, J., Nutley, S. B., Crisci, G., & Thorell, L. B. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-023-10066-4 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“This issue has been highly debated, with some researchers arguing that heavy involvement in digital media use is not a good indication of addiction (Billieux et al., 2019; Charlton & Danforth, 2007).”
BackgroundDevelopment of gaming disorder: Underlying risk factors and complex temporal dynamics
Martončik, M., Ropovik, I., & Adamkovic, M. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.108112 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Saunders, J. B., Rumpf, H., Carragher, N., & Poznyak, V. B. (2025) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-025-00631-0 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“In a similar vein, Billieux and colleagues emphasized the crucial distinction between a core (e.g. loss of control or continued use despite negative consequences) and peripheral symptoms (deceiving or escape) that are not necessarily indicative of pathological behaviour [45].”
Self-citationProblematic online behaviors and psychopathology in Australia
Starčević, V., Eslick, G. D., Viswasam, K., Billieux, J., Gainsbury, S., King, D. L., & Berle, D. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115405 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationCiudad-Fernández, V., Fournier, L., Escrivá‐Martínez, T., Baños, R., Zarco-Alpuente, A., & Billieux, J. (2025) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2025.00073 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Therefore, highly involved but non-problematic social media users are likely driven by harmonious passion, whereas problematic users are more likely driven by obsessive passion (see Billieux et al., 2019, for a similar discussion in the context of gaming).”
InfluentialSelf-citationAssessment and Treatment of Internet Gaming Disorder
Peter, S. C., Ginley, M. K., & Pfund, R. A. (2020) · Journal of Health Service Psychology · doi:10.1007/s42843-020-00005-2 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Ballou, N., & van Rooij, A. J. (2021) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.201385 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Hallauer, C., Rooney, E. A., Yang, H.-B., Meng, Q., Montag, C., & Elhai, J. (2021) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.319 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“…to this construct, including “smartphone use disorder” and “smartphone addiction,” consistent with concerns of over-pathologizing normal behavior (e.g. Billieux et al., 2019; Starcevic et al., 2021), no consensus currently exists on diagnostic criteria to define a “Use Disorder” associated with…”
BackgroundChen, J. H., Zhang, M. X., Ko, C., Tong, K. K., Yu, S. M., Sou, E. K. L., & Wu, A. M. S. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17103412 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Although a high level of gaming involvement may not be problematic for some players [15,16], we nevertheless expected to observe a positive association of IGD with weekly gameplay frequency as it has been consistently found before, and a similar association with depressive symptoms [7].”
ResultA Review of the Components of Problematic Exercise in Psychometric Assessment Instruments
Sicilia, Á., Alcaraz‐Ibáñez, M., Paterna, A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.839902 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Therefore, taking into account the aforementioned considerations, a key issue in selecting the components that should define problematic exercise is that they should reflect the pathological nature of the behavior, and therefore include components that are necessarily negative (46, 48).”
BackgroundBillaux, P., Billieux, J., Gärtner, L., Maurage, P., & Flayelle, M. (2022) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.1163 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationPredictive power of the DSM-5 criteria for internet use disorder: A CHAID decision-tree analysis
Bottel, L., Brand, M., Dieris-Hirche, J., Pape, M., Herpertz, S., & Wildt, B. T. T. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1129769 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Which diagnostic criteria distinguish between IUD and non-pathological internet use is highly debated in science and practice (Billieux et al., 2019; Brand et al., 2020; Castro-Calvo et al., 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialKing, D. L., Billieux, J., & Delfabbro, P. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2023.00079 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“In gaming studies, this method may help to distinguish so-called ‘ highly involved ’ and ‘ problem ’ gamers (Billieux et al., 2017, Billieux, Flayelle, Rumpf, & Stein, 2019).”
MethodSelf-citationProfile of Treatment-Seeking Gaming Disorder Patients: A Network Perspective
Granero, R., Fernández‐Aranda, F., Demetrovics, Z., Ayala-Rojas, R.-E., Gómez‐Peña, M., Moragas, L., & Jiménez‐Múrcia, S. (2021) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-021-10079-2 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“…of gaming disorder in this work was based on the presence of the criteria within a 12-months period (this classification rule is aligned with recent research showing that laxer criteria are susceptible to pathologize nonpathological gaming patterns) (Billieux et al., 2019; Deleuze et al., 2017).”
Background
- Authors
- Billieux, J., Flayelle, M., Rumpf, H.-J., & Stein, D. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Luxembourg (LU)
- University of Lübeck (DE)
- South African Medical Research Council (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Billieux, Joël
- Venue
- Current Addiction Reports
- Published
- 2019-05-23
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 323-330
- ISSN
- 2196-2952 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2946062009
- Cited by
- 242
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 48.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Current Addiction Reports (publishedVersion)
- Open Repository and Bibliography (University of Luxembourg) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Gambling Behavior and Treatments
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
- Keywords
- gaming disorder, gaming addiction, ICD-11, diagnostic validity, overdiagnosis, functional disability, problem gaming
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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