Poverty, Stress, and Brain Development: New Directions for Prevention and Intervention
Open accessAbstract
We review some of the growing evidence of the costs of poverty to children's neuroendocrine function, early brain development, and cognitive ability. We underscore the importance of addressing the negative consequences of poverty-related adversity early in children's lives, given evidence supporting the plasticity of executive functions and associated physiologic processes in response to early intervention and the importance of higher order cognitive functions for success in school and in life. Finally, we highlight some new directions for prevention and intervention that are rapidly emerging at the intersection of developmental science, pediatrics, child psychology and psychiatry, and public policy.
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Disorganized attachment endangers the development of foundational competencies, including executive functions, emotion recognition, and social information processing.
“In this way, disorganized attachment endangers the development of foundational competencies, including executive functions, emotion recognition, and social information processing”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context<sup>1</sup> (2019) · cites this paper as Blair & Raver, 2016
In “Caregiving as a Key Mechanism” (page not provided), the paper links lower maternal sensitivity to lower executive-function ability and difficulty regulating emotion and behavior. It does not identify disorganized attachment as the cause or address emotion recognition and social information processing as outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredParenting is influenced by perceptions and beliefs about parenting itself and by the level of parental stress.
“Parenting is influenced by perceptions and beliefs about parenting itself [24, 26] and the level of parental stress [27, 28].”
From Socioeconomic position, family context, and child cognitive development (2024) · cites this paper as [27]
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“…line of research, lower SES has been associated with several neural outcomes, including smaller volume of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and altered functional activity within the middle and inferior frontal gyri and the anterior cingulate cortex (Blair & Raver, 2016; Farah, 2017; Noble et al., 2015).”
How Do Families Experience and Interact with CPS?
Merritt, D. H. (2020) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716220979520 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“Poverty impacts working memory, cognitive appraisal, and decision-making (Blair and Raver 2016; Mani et al.”
BackgroundAyeni, E. A., Aldossary, A. M., Ayejoto, D. A., Gbadegesin, L. A., Alshehri, A. A., Alfassam, H. A., Afewerky, H. K., Almughem, F. A., Saidu, M. B., & Tawfik, E. A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191912495 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Rakesh, D., Lee, P. A., Gaikwad, A., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2024) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14082 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“In particular, there is a need for research that examines changes in brain structure and function pre and post intervention in low SES children and adolescents and how these changes relate to cognitive, language, and academic outcomes (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
Deoni, S., Beauchemin, J., Volpe, A. R., & D’Sa, V. A. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.08.10.21261846 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Finders, J. K., McClelland, M. M., Geldhof, G. J., Rothwell, D. W., & Hatfield, B. E. (2020) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.07.008 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Identifying adverse childhood experiences in pediatrics to prevent chronic health conditions
Barnes, A. J., Anthony, B. J., Karatekin, C., Lingras, K. A., Mercado, R., & Thompson, L. A. (2019) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-019-0613-3 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Parenteau, A. M., Boyer, C. J., Campos, L., Carranza, A. F., Deer, L. K., Hartman, D. T., Bidwell, J. T., & Hostinar, C. E. (2022) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579422000499 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“…that activate stress-response systems such as the hypothalamic – pituitary – adrenal (HPA) axis, autonomic nervous system, and immune system, they can continually erode the mental and physical health of socially and economically marginalized groups (Blair & Raver, 2016; McEwen & Gianaros, 2010).”
BackgroundHostinar, C. E., Nusslock, R., & Miller, G. E. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1266647 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“…that improve parenting and parent – child relationship quality seem not only to bene fi t children ’ s cognitive outcomes and socioemotional skills (Blair & Raver, 2016; Fisher et al., 2016; Neville et al., 2013) but also to affect the functioning of their stress-response systems (Fisher et…”
Decisions in poverty contexts.
Shafir, E. (2017) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.08.026 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Brandes-Aitken, A. N., Braren, S. H., Swingler, M. M., Voegtline, K., & Blair, C. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2019.04.006 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“…interrelated, effortful control is generally considered to be more behavioral (Rothbart & Rueda, 2005), while executive function is more cognitive (Blair, 2016; Posner & Rothbart, 2000) (Posner & Rothbart, 2000), and emotion regulation is primarily affective (Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997; Ursache,…”
BackgroundSelf-citationInvestigating the Impact of a Musical Intervention on Preschool Children’s Executive Function
Bowmer, A., Mason, K., Knight, J., & Welch, G. F. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02389 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Early EF training has subsequently been shown to reduce the achievement gap between more-and less-advantaged children (Blair and Raver, 2014, 2016; Ribner et al., 2017).”
BackgroundPoverty's Impact on Children's Executive Functions: Global Considerations
Haft, S. L., & Hoeft, F. (2017) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20220 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Many studies link SES to individual brain differences, underscoring the role of brain development in the poverty-to-EF pathway (see review by Blair & Raver, 2016).”
BackgroundPoverty, Depression, and Anxiety: Causal Evidence and Mechanisms
Ridley, M., Rao, G., Schilbach, F., & Patel, V. (2020) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w27157 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Leroy, J. L., Frongillo, E. A., Dewan, P., Black, M. M., & Waterland, R. A. (2020) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa020 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“Thus, poverty may disrupt neural processing and undermine the development of executive function and the regulation of emotion and attention (67).”
BackgroundAssociation of Prenatal Exposure to Early-Life Adversity With Neonatal Brain Volumes at Birth
Triplett, R. L., Lean, R. E., Parikh, A. N., Miller, J. P., Alexopoulos, D. K., Kaplan, S., Meyer, D., Adamson, C. L., Smyser, T. A., Rogers, C. E., et al. (2022) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.7045 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Neighborhood disadvantage and longitudinal brain-predicted-age trajectory during adolescence
Rakesh, D., Cropley, V., Zalesky, A., Vijayakumar, N., Allen, N. B., & Whittle, S. (2021) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2021.101002 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“…may be altered in low-resource high-stress environments, such that the development of brain systems that are involved in adapting and reacting to stressful conditions, is potentially prioritized over the development of brain systems supporting executive functioning (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
BackgroundCoding in Primary Grades Boosts Children’s Executive Functions
Arfé, B., Vardanega, T., Montuori, C., & Lavanga, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02713 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“As children’s ability to benefit from coding can be mediated by low SES (Israel et al., 2015) and SES is associated with poorer EF skills and school achievement in STEM (Blair and Raver, 2016; Blums et al., 2017), the SES of the two groups was assessed to make sure they not differ on this variable.”
BackgroundPerry, R. E., Finegood, E. D., Braren, S. H., DeJoseph, M. L., Putrino, D. F., Wilson, D. A., Sullivan, R. M., Raver, C. C., Blair, C., & Family Life Project Key Investigators (2018) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457941800007x · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Children raised in poverty are at increased risk for a host of negative physical and mental health outcomes (Blair & Raver, 2012, 2016; Duncan et al., 2010; Hackman et al., 2010; Johnson et al., 2016; Yoshikawa et al., 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationBrain connectivity and socioeconomic status at birth and externalizing symptoms at age 2 years
Ramphal, B., Whalen, D. J., Kenley, J. K., Yu, Q., Smyser, C. D., Rogers, C. E., & Sylvester, C. M. (2020) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100811 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“, 2015), children (Blair and Raver, 2016; Tooley et al., 2019), and adults (Sripada et al.”
BackgroundWeisleder, A., Cates, C. B., Harding, J. F., Johnson, S. B., Canfield, C. F., Seery, A. M., Raak, C. D., Alonso, A., Dreyer, B. P., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2019) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2019.06.037 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Bhushan, D., Kotz, K. J., McCall, J., Wirtz, S., Gilgoff, R., Dube, S. R., Powers, C., Olson-Morgan, J., Galeste, M., Patterson, K., et al. (2020) · doi:10.48019/peam8812 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
A Neurocognitive Model of Self-Concept Development in Adolescence
Crone, E. A., Green, K. H., van de Groep, I. H., & van der Cruijsen, R. (2022) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-120920-023842 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Mughal, M. K., Giallo, R., Arnold, P. D., Benzies, K., Kehler, H. L., Bright, K. S., & Kingston, D. E. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.02.095 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
COVID-19 and ethnicity: A novel pathophysiological role for inflammation
Vepa, A., Bae, J. P., Ahmed, F., Pareek, M., & Khunti, K. K. (2020) · Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome Clinical Research & Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2020.06.056 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Secondly, deprivation and poverty, especially during childhood years, can contribute to psychological stress [94], inflammation [95,96], and now additionally COVID-19 mortality [97].”
BackgroundCalhoun, B. H., Williams, J. G., Greenberg, M. T., Domitrovich, C. E., Russell, M. A., & Fishbein, D. H. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.561196 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“These skills are essential for self-regulation and other social emotional competencies, which develop naturally throughout childhood, but are susceptible to impairments in the context of adversity (Blair and Raver, 2016).”
BackgroundVogel, S. C., Perry, R. E., Brandes-Aitken, A. N., Braren, S. H., & Blair, C. (2020) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100907 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Mental Health of Minority and Marginalized Young People: An Opportunity for Action
Murthy, V. H. (2022) · Public Health Reports · doi:10.1177/00333549221102390 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Psychosocial Stress and Adversity: Effects from the Perinatal Period to Adulthood
Barrero‐Castillero, A., Morton, S. U., Nelson, C. A., & Smith, V. C. (2019) · NeoReviews · doi:10.1542/neo.20-12-e686 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Williams, K. E., Bentley, L., Savage, S., Eager, R., & Nielson, C. (2023) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2023.05.008 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Perceived stress is associated with smaller hippocampal volume in adolescence
Piccolo, L. D. R., Noble, K. G., & for the Pediatric Imaging, N. (2017) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13025 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Among the factors contributing to chronic stress are adverse socioeconomic circumstances, as well as exposure to traumatic events, abuse, and neglect (for a review, see Blair & Raver, 2016; Tottenham & Sheridan, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialMemory of famine: The persistent impact of famine experience on food waste behavior
Ding, Y., Min, S., Wang, X., & Yu, X. (2022) · China Economic Review · doi:10.1016/j.chieco.2022.101795 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Conceptions and misconceptions about neuroscience in preschool teachers: a study from Argentina
Hermida, M. J., Segretin, M. S., García, A. S., & Lipina, S. J. (2016) · Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00131881.2016.1238585 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Item 22 (The impact of poverty on brain development cannot be altered through educational interventions) was considered false because of the evidence indicating that poverty effects can be limited by educational interventions (Blair and Raver 2016; Hackman, Farah, and Meaney 2010).”
BackgroundEllefson, M. R., Zachariou, A., Ng, F. F., Wang, Q., & Hughes, C. H. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104734 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
McNeilly, E. A., Peverill, M., Jung, J., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2021) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.04.010 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“EF is a potential developmental mechanism, given that it is consistently associated with both SES and psychopathology in children and adolescents (Blair & Raver, 2016; Lawson, Hook, & Farah, 2018; McLaughlin, 2016; Zelazo & Mller, 2002).”
BackgroundBentley, L. A., Eager, R., Savage, S., Nielson, C., White, S. L. J., & Williams, K. E. (2022) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13358 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2022) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2022.2156515 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“For example, financial uncertainty, residential and employment instability, and exposure to discrimination can lead to high levels of sustained and uncontrollable stress (e.g., Blair & Raver, 2016; Miller-Cotto et al., 2022).”
BackgroundMughal, M. K., Giallo, R., Arnold, P. D., Kehler, H. L., Bright, K. S., Benzies, K., Wajid, A., & Kingston, D. E. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.132 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Lean, R. E., Lessov‐Shlaggar, C. N., Gerstein, E. D., Smyser, T. A., Paul, R. A., Smyser, C. D., & Rogers, C. E. (2019) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13116 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Second, mothers experiencing high levels of psychosocial distress may face greater challenges in providing supportive home environments (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
BackgroundJasińska, K. K., & Guei, S. (2018) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/57165 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Poverty, Parent Stress, and Emerging Executive Functions in Young Children
Finegood, E. D., & Blair, C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55376-4_8 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationDeer, L. K., Hastings, P. D., & Hostinar, C. E. (2020) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13383 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Child Poverty in the United States Today: Introduction and Executive Summary
Dreyer, B. P., Chung, P. J., Szilagyi, P. G., & Wong, S. L. (2016) · Academic Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.acap.2016.02.010 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Mostert, C. M., Udeh-Momoh, C., Winkler, A. S., McLaughlin, C., Eyre, H., Salama, M., Ranchod, K., Trepel, D., Vradenburg, G., Hynes, W., et al. (2025) · eBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105950 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“61 In-come inequality also negatively affects brain measures in females across various global settings, particularly in disadvantaged regions.”
Norton, E. S., MacNeill, L. A., Harriott, E. M., Allen, N. B., Krogh‐Jespersen, S., Smyser, C. D., Rogers, C. E., Smyser, T. A., Luby, J. L., & Wakschlag, L. S. (2021) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2021.100988 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Disruptions in typical brain development likely underlie such trajectories, particularly during the first few years of life when brain plasticity is heightened (Blair and Raver, 2016).”
Cash transfer programs and child health and family economic outcomes: a systematic review
Fuller, A. E., Zaffar, N., Cohen, E., Pentland, M., Siddiqi, A., Vandermorris, A., van den Heuvel, M., Birken, C. S., Guttmann, A., & de Oliveira, C. (2022) · Canadian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.17269/s41997-022-00610-2 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Parental health is critical to child health as parents buffer the effects of low income on children (Blair & Raver, 2016) and, while there is a strong focus on reducing child poverty in policy and clinical interventions, the importance of promoting parental health cannot be overstated.”
BackgroundDawson‐McClure, S., Calzada, E. J., & Brotman, L. M. (2017) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-017-0763-7 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Cultural diversity A robust literature documents the impact of poverty on child development and lifelong health, well-being, and productivity (see Blair and Raver 2016).”
Mendelian randomization study on the causal effects of COVID‐19 on childhood intelligence
Zhu, G., Zhou, S., Xu, Y., Gao, R., Li, H., Su, W., Han, G., & Wang, R. (2022) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.27736 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Muentner, L., Kapoor, A., Weymouth, L., & Poehlmann, J. (2021) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22113 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“…to poor executive function development and less optimal regulation of emotion and attention (Blair, Raver, & Granger, 2011), thereby influencing activity in and development of brain structures and neural circuitry that are crucial for behavior, health, and development (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
BackgroundStrang, J. F., Chen, D., Nelson, E. E., Leibowitz, S. F., Nahata, L., Anthony, L. G., Song, A. Y., Grannis, C., Graham, E. K., Henise, S. B., et al. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-021-01195-6 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Barch, D. M., Donohue, M. R., Elsayed, N. M., Gilbert, K., Harms, M. P., Hennefield, L., Herzberg, M. P., Kandala, S., Karcher, N. R., Jackson, J. J., et al. (2021) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.07.002 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Social Outcomes: We coded for seven outcomes (Supplement): (1) poor peer relationships; (2) peer acceptance/rejection; (3) bullied; (4) relational victimization; and (5) social withdrawal; (6) social inhibition; and (7) prosocial behavior.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWealth and Child Development: Differences in Associations by Family Income and Developmental Stage
Miller, P., Podvysotska, T., Betancur, L., & Votruba‐Drzal, E. (2021) · RSF The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences · doi:10.7758/rsf.2021.7.3.07 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“…economic uncertainty or income loss, which would weaken negative links between volatility and children’s self-regulatory and attentional abilities and, in turn, academic and behavioral development (Blair and Raver 2016; Evans et al. 2005; Palacios-Barrios and Hanson 2019; Wadsworth et al. 2016).”
Schmidt, K. L., Merrill, S. M., Gill, R., Miller, G. E., Gadermann, A., & Kobor, M. S. (2021) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2021.100983 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Maximizing research on the adverse effects of child poverty through consensus measures
Pollak, S. D., & Wolfe, B. L. (2020) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12946 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“A review of this new literature is beyond the scope of this paper, but a number of recent, comprehensive reviews of these studies have been published (see Blair & Raver, 2016; Farah, 2018; Johnson, Riis, & Noble, 2016).”
BackgroundBarch, D. M., Shirtcliff, E. A., Elsayed, N. M., Whalen, D. J., Gilbert, K., Vogel, A. C., Tillman, R., & Luby, J. L. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2004363117 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“The overwhelming evidence of such associations has encouraged efforts aimed at early intervention and prevention (11, 13).”
BackgroundUndergraduate neuroscience education: Meeting the challenges of the 21st century
Ramirez, J. J. (2020) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135418 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Allee‐Herndon, K. A., & Roberts, S. K. (2020) · Journal of Education · doi:10.1177/0022057420903272 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Maternal mental health mediates links between socioeconomic status and child development
Smith, T. A., Kievit, R., & Astle, D. E. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03181-0 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Guevara, J. P., Erkoboni, D., Gerdes, M., Winston, S., Sands, D., Rogers, K., Haecker, T., Jiménez, M. E., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2020) · The Journal of Pediatrics X · doi:10.1016/j.ympdx.2020.100020 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Transcending Adversity: Trauma-Informed Educational Development
Imad, M. (2021) · To improve the academy · doi:10.3998/tia.17063888.0039.301 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…single event (e.g., a car accident), recurring events accumulated over a generation (e.g., poverty), and recurring events accumulated over generations— intergenerational (e.g., racism) (Blair & Raver, 2016; Lehrner & Yehuda, 2018; Luby et al., 2013; Sangalang & Vang, 2016; Yehuda & Lehrner, 2018).”
BackgroundSNAP participation and the health and health care utilisation of low-income adults and children
Miller, D. P., & Morrissey, T. W. (2021) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980021003815 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Enns, J. E., Nickel, N. C., Chartier, M., Chateau, D. G., Campbell, R., Phillips-Beck, W., Sarkar, J., Burland, E., Katz, A., Santos, R. G., et al. (2021) · BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth · doi:10.1186/s12884-021-03782-w · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Holmes, S. C., Callinan, L. S., Facemire, V. C., Williams, M. T., Ciarleglio, M. M., & Smith, M. V. (2021) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22741 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Turney, K., & Haskins, A. R. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16707-3_5 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Relationships Between Material Hardship, Resilience, and Health Care Use
Fuller, A. E., Garg, A., Brown, N. M., Tripodis, Y., Oyeku, S. O., & Gross, R. S. (2020) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2019-1975 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Neighborhood cohesion was measured by using 3 questions: “To what extent do you agree with these statements about your neighborhood or community: (1) people in this neighborhood help each other out, (2) we watch out for each other’s children in this neighborhood, and (3) when we encounter difficulties, we know where t…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKenny, S. A., Cameron, C. E., Karing, J. T., Ahmadi, A., Braithwaite, P. N., & McClelland, M. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1124235 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Scholars suggest that the construct of self-regulation is multidimensional and involves both conscious (i.e., top-down) and unconscious (i.e., bottom-up) biopsychosocial processes (Best and Miller, 2010; McClelland and Cameron, 2012; Blair, 2016; Nigg, 2017).”
BackgroundRemixing the School Counselor’s Tool Kit
Levy, I., Cook, A. L., & Emdin, C. (2018) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.1177/2156759x18800285 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Research suggests young people of color from impoverished urban neighborhoods face higher levels of mental, physical, and social stress than their more affluent, mostly White counterparts (Blair & Raver, 2016; Day, Ji, DuBois, Silverthorn, & Flay, 2016; Wade et al., 2014).”
BackgroundStripping the Wallpaper of Practice: Empowering Social Workers to Tackle Poverty
McCartan, C. J., Morrison, A., Bunting, L., Davidson, G., & McIlroy, J. (2018) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci7100193 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“The effects of poverty on brain development can be apparent in infancy but there is growing evidence that these negative effects can be mitigated or reversed through targeted parenting interventions and poverty alleviation (Blair and Raver 2016).”
BackgroundMindful Family Routines and the Cultivation of Executive Function Skills in Childhood
Semenov, A. D., & Zelazo, P. D. (2019) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000503822 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“…and the disruption of daily family routines, and research has examined the potential negative effects of poverty and chaos on cognitive (e.g., Blair & Raver, 2016), socio-emotional (e.g., Evans, Gonnella, Marcynyszyn, Gentile, & Salpekar, 2005), and academic development (e.g., Shonkoff et…”
BackgroundAllee‐Herndon, K. A., Roberts, S. K., Hu, B., Clark, M. H., & Stewart, M. L. (2021) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-020-01141-6 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Disrupting links between poverty, chronic stress, and educational inequality
Harms, M. B., & Garrett-Ruffin, S. (2023) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00199-2 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“A growing body of evidence suggests that growing up in poverty contributes to cumulative risk exposure — resulting in chronic stress which impacts neurocognitive development in ways that tend to hinder academic performance 12 – 14 .”
BackgroundBessette, K. L., Karstens, A. J., Crane, N. A., Peters, A. T., Stange, J. P., Elverman, K. H., Morimoto, S. S., Weisenbach, S. L., & Langenecker, S. A. (2020) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-019-09424-5 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Sheehan, K., Bhatti, P. K., Yousuf, S., Rosenow, W., Roehler, D. R., Hazekamp, C. S., Wu, H.-W., Orbuch, R., Bartell, T. R., Quinlan, K. P., et al. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13016-z · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Troller‐Renfree, S. V., Sperber, J. F., Hart, E. R., Costanzo, M. A., Gennetian, L. A., Meyer, J. S., Fox, N. A., & Noble, K. G. (2023) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2023.108683 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Mothers living in poverty are more likely to experience stress when compared to individuals with economic advantage (Algren et al., 2018; Attar et al., 2010; Blair & Raver, 2016; Evans, 2004; Evans & English, 2002; Evans & Kim, 2010; Hackman et al., 2010; McLoyd, 1990; Senn et al., 2014).”
BackgroundJohnston, M. C., Black, C., Mercer, S. W., Prescott, G. J., & Crilly, M. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024048 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Exposure to stressors when young can impact directly on neurobiological development.(29) Children in families in poverty may have changes in brain function due to the impact of cortisol on the developing brain.”
BackgroundCheraghian, H., Moradian, K., & Nouri, T. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04678-z · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“In addition, parental support can protect the child from stressors that are detrimental to their physical and mental health and provide the foundation for social appropriateness and effective learning [5].”
BackgroundReclaiming Healthcare’s Healing Mission for a Sustainable Future
Berry, L. L., Yadav, M. S., & Hole, M. K. (2023) · Journal of Service Research · doi:10.1177/10946705231198024 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
- Authors
- Blair, C., & Raver, C. C.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Blair, Clancy
- ORCID
- Blair, Clancy
- Venue
- Academic Pediatrics
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-04
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- S30-S36
- ISSN
- 1876-2859 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5765853
- OpenAlex
- W2327738691
- Cited by
- 543
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 58 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 75 · 2020: 63 · 2019: 42 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 4
- FWCI
- 6.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Academic Pediatrics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01 HD51502, P01 HD39667)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse
- US Administration for Children and Families (90YR0057)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Food Security and Health in Diverse Populations
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- poverty, childhood adversity, stress, early brain development, neuroendocrine function, executive function, cognitive ability, early intervention, prevention, child development, public policy
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Brain, Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Humans, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Poverty, Stress, Psychological, Parenting, Early Intervention, Educational, Executive Function
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