Annual Research Review: Early adversity, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis, and child psychopathology

May combine two claims.

Social-evaluative stressors are the most potent stressors apart from physical threat, particularly when uncontrollable or unpredictable.

“Beyond situations that threaten bodily harm, the most potent types of stressors are ones that threaten our social selves (i.e., relationships, group status, self-esteem, Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004), especially if they are uncontrollable or unpredictable.”

• cites Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

MRs have high cortisol affinity and are nearly fully bound except at the daily low, whereas GRs have lower affinity and bind during acute responses and the daily peak.

“MRs have high affinity for cortisol and are nearly wholly bound except at the lowest point of the daily rhythm. GRs have lower affinity for cortisol and thus become bound as levels rise during an acute response as well as at the peak of the daily rhythm.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cortisol enters all body cells; in the periphery it binds mainly to GRs, while in the brain it binds to both GRs and MRs.

“Once released into circulation, because it is a steroid hormone and thus lipid soluble, cortisol enters all cells of the body, many of which contain receptors for cortisol. In the periphery, cortisol binds predominantly to glucocorticoid receptors (GR); however, in the brain cortisol binds to both GR and mineralocorticoid receptors (MR).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Continued PVN input can override negative feedback and sustain cortisol production during prolonged or intense stressors.

“Ongoing input to the PVN can override the negative feedback and continue cortisol production during prolonged or intense stressors.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

HPA system products broadly affect gene transcription and trophic processes that influence neurodevelopment.

“We focus on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system because its products have widespread effects on gene transcription and trophic processes that impact neurodevelopment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The PVN receives brainstem inputs that convey physical state information and activate the HPA axis during physical stressors.

“The PVN receives inputs from brainstem nuclei, including the nucleus tractus solitarus, that provide information about the physical state of the body and activate the system in response to physical stressors.”

• cites Low, 2017Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The HPA axis is a core stress system that reacts to many stressors.

“The HPA axis, however, is one of the core stress systems and is responsive to many stressors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cortisol receptors occur throughout the body, so cortisol affects many systems involved in development and mental and physical health.

“Receptors for cortisol, the end product of the HPA axis in humans, are present throughout the body; thus, its effects are widespread on systems that underlie developmental processes and mental and physical health.”

May combine two claims.

Stress responses vary by stressor and involve multiple systems.

“Because stressors differ in their physical and mental demands, responses are stressor-specific and engage multiple systems (Hostinar & Gunnar, 2013).”

• cites Hostinar & Gunnar, 2013Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The hippocampus sets the tone for HPA responses to psychological stressors and modulates stress responses across the day.

“The hippocampus is critically involved in setting the tone for the axis’ responses to psychological stressors and modulates the stress response across the day.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The HPA axis functions as a negative-feedback loop in which elevated cortisol suppresses axis activity and returns cortisol to baseline.

“The HPA axis operates as a negative-feedback loop; acutely elevated cortisol binds to receptors in the pituitary and PVN to rapidly suppress activity of the axis allowing cortisol to return to baseline levels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PVN release of CRH and AVP stimulates ACTH production and release, which causes cortisol release from the adrenal cortex.

“Lifting inhibitory inputs and/or increasing excitatory inputs in the PVN releases corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) into a portal system connecting the PVN to the anterior pituitary gland.”

• Also stated in: § The HPA Axis · plain

  “CRH, augmented by AVP, stimulates the production and release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH travels through the blood stream and interacts with cells on the adrenal cortex causing a cascade of enzymatic events that result in the release of cortisol.”

May combine two claims.

Prolonged cortisol elevations up-regulate central amygdala CRH, which can facilitate locus coeruleus norepinephrine and enhance fight/flight capacity.

“Prolonged cortisol elevations also up-regulate CRH in the central amygdala which can facilitate activation of central norepinephrine in the locus coeruleus, enhancing the capacity for fight/flight.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Salivary cortisol can assess acute stress responses and the diurnal cortisol rhythm.

“Salivary cortisol can be used to assess acute responses to stressors and the cortisol diurnal rhythm.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A key function of the HPA axis is to contain and reverse stress responses in other systems.

“These effects often counter actions triggered by fight/flight responses; thus, one critical function of the HPA axis is to contain and reverse the effects of stress responses in other systems (Sapolsky, Romero, & Munck, 2000).”

• cites Sapolsky, Romero, & Munck, 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some cortisol effects are mediated at the cell membrane and occur rapidly, unlike slower gene transcription effects.

“Effects via gene transcription can take minutes to hours; however, some effects are cell membrane-mediated and occur rapidly.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Allostatic Load Model proposes that the HPA axis, along with other physiological systems, contributes to increased disease risk.

“The Allostatic Load Model (ALM) is perhaps the most prominent model of stress and health (McEwen, 1998). ALM proposes that the HPA axis, among other physiological systems (e.g., autonomic nervous system, immune, cardiovascular, oxidative stress) are implicated in increased risk for disease.”

• cites McEwen, 1998Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Double hit models are a form of diathesis-stress in which the diathesis is prior adverse stressors, often early in development.

“Double hit models are a form of diathesis-stress where the diathesis is the presence of previous adverse stressors, often during early formative periods of development.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Diurnal variation indices include morning wake levels, the cortisol awakening response, diurnal slope, and total daily response magnitude.

“Multiple indices can be derived from non-stressed daily functioning including 1) morning wake levels, 2) the cortisol awakening response (CAR), reflecting the degree of change from wake to peak, 3) diurnal slope, reflecting the rate of change across the day, and 4) magnitude of the total daily response.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Acute stress response parameters include reactivity, recovery, and total cortisol response.

“A number of parameters of the acute stress response have been targets of investigation including 1) reactivity, assessing the magnitude of change from pre-stressor to peak levels, 2) recovery, assessing rate of return to pre-stressor levels, and 3) total cortisol response, reflecting the magnitude of the response inclusive of both reactivity and recovery.”

May combine two claims.

In infants, hair cortisol is positively related to waking and bedtime levels and total daily cortisol magnitude, but not to diurnal slope.

“In infants, hair cortisol is positively related to waking and bedtime levels and total magnitude of cortisol across the day, but not the diurnal slope (Flom, St. John, Meyer, & Tarullo, 2017).”

• cites Flom, St. John, Meyer, & Tarullo, 2017Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The stress inoculation model proposes a J-shaped relation between early stressor exposure and later functioning, with moderate mild stressor exposure possibly shaping the axis for better later functioning.

“The stress inoculation model (Parker, Buckmaster, Sundlass, Schatzberg, & Lyons, 2006) proposes a J-shape relation between early experiences with stressors and later functioning, such that moderate exposure to mild stressors may help shape the axis for more optimal functioning with later challenges.”

• cites Parker, Buckmaster, Sundlass, Schatzberg, & Lyons, 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The double hit model allows additional, often genetic, vulnerability in the etiology of pathology.

“The double hit model is also open to additional, often genetic, vulnerability as part of the etiology of pathology.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Allostasis refers to the body promoting stability through increased activity of stress-mediating systems.

“Central to this theory is the notion of allostasis, which refers to the body’s ability to promote stability via increased activity of stress-mediating systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Allostatic Load Model argues that negative effects on physical and mental health are comparable.

“Notably, while ALM argues comparable negative effects on physical and mental health (Danese & McEwen, 2012)”

• cites Danese & McEwen, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

MRs help maintain neurons and neurotransmitter responsiveness, while GRs mediate most stress-associated responses.

“MRs help maintain neurons and support their responsiveness to their neurotransmitters; GRs mediate most of the responses that are associated with stress.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Measuring over multiple days allows study of day-to-day variation and yields more stable measures than single-day assessments.

“Measurement occasions over multiple days allow study of day-to-day variation as well as derivation of more stable measures than single day assessments.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Chronic or frequent environmental stressors require more frequent adjustments of stress response systems.

“Chronic or frequent environmental stressors require more frequent adjustments of the stress response systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Usually no more than 3 cm of hair is examined because cortisol leaches out with washing and hair treatments.

“Typically, no more than 3 cm are examined as cortisol leaches from the hair with washing and hair treatments.”

May combine two claims.

The SAM and HPA systems are closely interconnected but do not respond in lock-step.

“The SAM and HPA systems are intricately intertwined although they do not respond in lock-step fashion (Goldstein & Kopin, 2008).”

• cites Goldstein & Kopin, 2008Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Diathesis-stress models posit that individuals differ in susceptibility to negative effects of environmental stressors.

“Diathesis-stress models (Monroe & Simons, 1991) are often invoked in stress and psychopathology research to explain individual variability inherent in adversity-psychopathology relations. These models posit that not all individuals are equally susceptible to negative influences of environmental stressors.”

• cites Monroe & Simons, 1991Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cortisol follows a circadian rhythm with higher morning levels, a peak about 30 minutes after waking, a decline across the day, and a nadir in the evening with sleep.

“Across the day, cortisol levels follow a circadian rhythm released in pulses. Cortisol is higher in the morning with peak levels occurring approximately 30 minutes after waking, followed by a decline throughout the day reaching its nadir in the evening with sleep.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The ability to cope with mild stressors is important for health.

“All individuals encounter stressors throughout their life and the ability to cope with mild stressors is important for health.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

SNS activation takes five or more seconds to markedly increase heart rate, whereas vagal withdrawal increases it in under a second.

“Indeed, activation of the SNS requires five or more seconds to produce a marked increase in heart rate, while withdrawal of vagal input significantly increases it in less than a second.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The PNS provides counter-regulation that returns the body to a rest-and-digest state after stress.

“The parasympathetic system nervous system (PNS) provides counter-regulation, serving to return the body to a rest and digest state following stress.”

May combine two claims.

People under chronic stressors initially show frequent prolonged cortisol elevations but later often show suppressed levels and blunted reactivity.

“This is likely why individuals experiencing chronic stressors initially exhibit frequent, prolonged elevations in cortisol, but then often have suppressed levels and blunted reactivity.”

• cites Fries et al., 2005Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Acute stressor designs should include a 30-40-minute relaxation period before baseline sampling to reduce anticipatory responses.

“Because individuals often exhibit an anticipatory response to coming into a laboratory setting, acute stressor designs ideally include a 30–40-minute relaxation period before sampling a baseline measure.”

May combine two claims.

Acute HPA axis responses are necessary and can have positive effects, including supporting positive mood.

“Acute HPA axis responses are necessary and have positive effects on functioning, including supporting positive mood (Hoyt, Zeiders, Ehrlich, & Adam, 2016).”

• cites Hoyt, Zeiders, Ehrlich, & Adam, 2016Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

During acute stress, the HPA axis coordinates resource mobilization and interacts with growth, metabolism, immune, cognitive, and reproductive systems.

“In the face of an acute stressor, the HPA axis coordinates the mobilization of the body’s resources to ensure survival; as such, it interacts with and influences many biological systems including growth, metabolism, immune, cognition, and reproduction.”

May combine two claims.

Short-term allostatic adjustments are adaptive, but long-term cumulative allostatic responses produce wear and tear and increase disease risk.

“These adjustments are adaptive in the short-term; however, in the long-term, the cumulative effects of allostatic responses are posited to produce wear and tear on the body, termed allostatic load or overload, increasing risk of disease.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Genetic variation or other vulnerability factors are viewed as the diathesis that applies to some but not all individuals.

“Genetic variation or other vulnerability factors are viewed as the diathesis that pertains to some but not all individuals.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The medulla primarily regulates the PNS under non-stress conditions, while higher regions including the PVN modify medullary activity for cardiovascular responses to emotion and stress.

“The medulla is the primary brain site for regulating the PNS under non-stress condition; however, higher brain regions including the PVN are involved in modifying medullary activity to control cardiovascular responses to emotions and stress (Thayer & Lane, 2000).”

• cites Thayer & Lane, 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Allostatic load indicators may be more suitable for predicting physical health than mental health.

“This raises the possibility that allostatic load indicators are more appropriate for predicting physical rather than mental health.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Hair grows about 1 cm per month, so the closest centimeter to the scalp reflects the last month of cortisol production.

“Hair grows at roughly 1 cm per month, thus the closest centimeter to the scalp reflects the last month of cortisol production and so on.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most cortisol effects occur through gene transcription, involving intracellular receptor binding, nuclear translocation, and binding to glucocorticoid response elements in gene promoters.

“Most of the effects of cortisol operate through gene transcription. This involves binding of cortisol to its intracellular receptors, translocation of the hormone-receptor complex to the cell nucleus, and then binding to glucocorticoid receptive elements which are in the promotor regions of many genes resulting in regulation of gene transcription.”

May combine two claims.

Normal cortisol levels are needed to restrain the SNS, so both low and high cortisol can accompany augmented sympathetic stress responses.

“Interestingly, normal levels of cortisol are needed to keep the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) in check, suggesting that both hypo- and hyper-cortisolism can be associated with augmented sympathetic stress responses (Kvetnansky et al., 1995).”

• cites Kvetnansky et al., 1995Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Well-designed diurnal variation studies collect multiple samples at waking, the CAR, and evening to derive different HPA indices.

“Well-designed studies assessing diurnal variation include collecting multiple samples in conjunction with waking, the CAR, and evening hours to derive different indices of HPA functioning.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Patterns of stress system coordination may shift because individual systems respond differently across development, context, stressor type, and experiential history.

“However, the extent to which these individual systems respond differentially across development, context, eliciting stressor, and experiential histories, may cause the patterns uncovered to shift.”

May combine two claims.

Current evidence indicates that both deprivation and threat are associated with heightened HPA axis activity, which if chronic may produce a hypocortisolism state.

“Rather, the current evidence is that both deprivation and threat are associated with heightened activity of the axis which if chronic may produce a hypocortisolism state (Sánchez, Ladd, & Plotsky, 2001).”

• cites Sánchez, Ladd, & Plotsky, 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Koss et al. note that patterns of symmetry and asymmetry contributing to psychopathology differ by risk exposure.

“Indeed, Koss et al. (2014) note that patterns of symmetry and asymmetry in contributing to psychopathology differed depending on risk exposure.”

• cites Koss et al., 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Adaptive Calibration Model proposes that distinct patterns of stress responses arise from environmental conditions, and initial evidence supports responsivity patterns.

“These authors posit that unique constellations of stress responses develop as a result of environmental conditions with initial support emerging with regards to responsivity patterns (Del Giudice, Hinnant, Ellis, & El-Sheikh, 2012).”

• cites Del Giudice, Hinnant, Ellis, & El-Sheikh, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Children with 0 or 3+ adversities show a blunted CAR and flatter diurnal rhythm, whereas those with 1-2 adversities show more robust HPA responses.

“Gustafsson et al. (2010) noted a blunted CAR and flatter diurnal rhythm for children experiencing 0 or 3+ adversities, while for those with 1–2 adverse experiences these HPA responses were more robust.”

• cites Gustafsson et al., 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Biological sensitivity to context theory postulates that genetic variation contributes to individual differences in stress response plasticity for better or worse, with supportive environments yielding positive outcomes and adverse environments yielding greater psychopathology and disease.

“In contrast to diathesis-stress models, biological sensitivity to context theory (Boyce & Ellis, 2005; see also differential susceptibility, Belsky & Pluess, 2009) postulates that genetic variation contributes to individual differences in plasticity of the stress response systems for better or for worse”

• Also stated in: § Biological Sensitivity to Context · hedged

  “such that for individuals in supportive, enriching environments these characteristics or genetic variants may produce positive outcomes whereas for individuals in adverse, harsh environments the same characteristics or genetic variants may lead to greater psychopathology and disease.”

• cites Boyce & Ellis, 2005Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Belsky & Pluess, 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Violence in the home and household instability have been related to both elevated and suppressed cortisol concentrations.

“As in other studies of adversity, violence in the home and household instability also have been related to both elevated and suppressed cortisol concentrations.”

May combine two claims.

More adverse stressors are proposed to worsen functioning, while little or no stressor exposure is also proposed to increase negative outcomes because it leaves individuals ill-equipped to cope.

“While more adverse stressors are proposed to result in worse functioning, little to no exposure to stressors is also proposed to increase negative outcomes as the lack of successful experiences with mild stressors leaves an individual ill-equipped to cope with subsequent challenge.”

May combine two claims.

Cross-sectional work suggests that early childhood poverty is associated with elevated cortisol activity, while later in childhood blunting and down-regulation of the axis is observed.

“Cross-sectional work suggests that early childhood poverty is associated with elevated cortisol activity, while later in childhood blunting and down-regulation of the axis is observed (Ursache, Noble, & Blair, 2015).”

• cites Ursache, Noble, & Blair, 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Adaptive Calibration Model posits a post-trauma pattern of unemotional responses and low stress reactivity in males and heightened stress reactivity and vigilance in females.

“The ACM posits a pattern following trauma that is characterized by unemotional responses and low stress reactivity in males and heightened stress reactivity and vigilance in females.”

May combine two claims.

Most models of stress physiology as a mechanism for later health deficits and psychopathology do not account for sex differences despite observed sex differences in psychopathology.

“For the most part, models of stress physiology as a mechanism for later health deficits and psychopathology do not take into account sex differences despite observed sex differences in psychopathology.”

May combine two claims.

Hastings et al. note that the relation between stress response system patterns and internalizing problems shifts over time, with heightened symmetrical activation linked to greater concurrent problems and asymmetry (low ANS, high HPA) contributing to later internalizing problems.

“Hastings et al. (2011) note a shift in the relation between stress response system patterns and internalizing problems overtime with heightened symmetrical activation related to greater concurrent problems, but asymmetry (low ANS, high HPA) contributing to later internalizing problems.”

• cites Hastings et al., 2011Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Non-linear relations in humans may be complex and change over time.

“Non-linear relations in humans may be complex and shift with time (Bush, Obradović, Adler, & Boyce, 2011).”

• cites Bush, Obradović, Adler, & Boyce, 2011Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Adaptive Calibration Model holds that the stress response system mediates between life conditions and life history strategies and predicts stress-behavior patterns for different early adversities.

“The ACM argues that the stress response system (SRS) mediated between life conditions and life history strategies and makes specific predictions to different stress-behavior patterns related to different types of early adversity.”

• cites Del Giudice, Ellis, & Shirtcliff, 2011Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In a Filipino adolescent cohort, lower SES across multiple developmental periods since birth was associated with flatter diurnal slope, higher evening cortisol, lower total cortisol output, and lower CAR.

“In a Filipino adolescent cohort, flatter diurnal slope, higher evening cortisol, lower total cortisol output, and lower CAR, were associated with lower SES across multiple developmental periods since birth (Desantis, Kuzawa, & Adam, 2015).”

• cites Desantis, Kuzawa, & Adam, 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Sex differences begin to emerge during adolescence, with some likely relating to interactions between the HPA and HPG axes.

“Differences begin to emerge during adolescence with some likely relating to interactions between the HPA and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Researchers have proposed that the deprivation and threat dimensions of early adverse care interact to produce a range of different neurobehavioral outcomes.

“Researchers have proposed that the deprivation and threat dimensions of early adverse care interact to produce a range of different neurobehavioral outcomes (McLaughlin & Sheridan, 2016).”

• cites McLaughlin & Sheridan, 2016Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The Adaptive Calibration Model proposes that sex differences may emerge under greater environmental stressors, with females showing greater stress reactivity alongside vigilant, withdrawn, or flight tendencies and males showing greater agonistic or fight patterns with greater stress reactivity.

“The ACM is an exception; this model proposes that sex differences may emerge in the context of greater environmental stressors such that greater stress reactivity in females is expected to coincide with vigilant, withdrawn, or flight tendencies (Del Giudice et al., 2011) while males may exhibit greater agnostic or fight patterns with greater stress reactivity.”

• cites Del Giudice et al., 2011Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Evidence supports developmental influences, adversity, and sex effects on the coupling of basal HPA-HPG axes.

“To date, there appears to be evidence for developmental influences, adversity, and sex effects in impacting the coupling of basal levels of HPA-HPG axes (Ruttle, Shirtcliff, Armstrong, Klein, & Essex, 2015; Simmons et al., 2015).”

• cites Ruttle, Shirtcliff, Armstrong, Klein, & Essex, 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Simmons et al., 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Neighborhood disadvantage is associated with greater cortisol reactivity in adolescent boys but not girls.

“Neighborhood disadvantage has been associated with greater cortisol reactivity in adolescent boys, though not girls (Hackman, Betancourt, Brodsky, Hurt, & Farah, 2012).”

• cites Hackman, Betancourt, Brodsky, Hurt, & Farah, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Prenatal but not postnatal infections result in higher cortisol concentrations at 18 months.

“Stressors in the form of prenatal but not postnatal infections, result in higher cortisol concentrations at 18 months (Gover et al., 2013).”

• cites Gover et al., 2013Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In young children, higher total cortisol output, flatter diurnal rhythm, and a more positive CAR were not associated with concurrent internalizing symptoms at 18 months, but were related to elevated symptoms at 36 months.

“In young children, higher total cortisol output, flatter diurnal rhythm, and a more positive CAR were not associated with concurrent internalizing symptoms at 18 months, but were related to elevated symptoms at 36 months (Saridjan et al., 2014).”

• cites Saridjan et al., 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

As in all work on sensitive periods and plasticity, the effects cut both ways, with stress systems also more open to greater effects of adversity during these periods.

“As in all work on sensitive periods and plasticity, the effects cut both ways, with stress systems also more open to greater effects of adversity during these periods.”

May combine two claims.

Removal from institutions after 1.5-2 years is associated with hypocortisolism, while the same is less apparent with earlier removal.

“With regards to stress reactivity, we find evidence that removal from institutions after 1.5–2 years is associated with hypocortisolism, while the same is less apparent with earlier removal (Koss et al., 2016; McLaughlin et al; 2015).”

• cites Koss et al., 2016Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites McLaughlin et al; 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

A higher CAR prospectively predicted the emergence of MDD one year later in adolescence and anxiety disorders six years later in young adults.

“A higher CAR prospectively predicted the emergence of MDD one-year later in adolescence (Adam et al., 2010), and anxiety disorders six years later in young adults (Adam et al., 2014).”

• cites Adam et al., 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Adam et al., 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Puberty may be characterized by greater variability in HPA activity; greater stability in anticipatory cortisol is noted among post-pubertal adolescents compared to pre- or early pubertal youth.

“Puberty may be characterized by greater variability in HPA activity; greater stability in anticipatory cortisol is noted among post-pubertal adolescents compared to pre- or early pubertal youth (van den Bos & Westenberg, 2015).”

• cites van den Bos & Westenberg, 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

There is evidence of increased reactivity to psychosocial stress with the transition from childhood to adolescence; higher cortisol levels and greater reactivity have been noted with more advanced age and/or pubertal stage.

“Certainly, there is evidence of increased reactivity to psychosocial stress with the transition from childhood to adolescence; higher cortisol levels and greater reactivity have been noted with more advanced age and/or pubertal stage (Gunnar, Wewerka, Frenn, Long, & Griggs, 2009; Stroud et al., 2009).”

• cites Gunnar, Wewerka, Frenn, Long, & Griggs, 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Stroud et al., 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

A meta-analysis supports prenatal programming of the HPA axis, primarily on baseline cortisol measures, with equivalent effect sizes for hyper- and hypo-secretion.

“Finally, a meta-analysis supports prenatal programming of the axis, primarily on baseline cortisol measures and, disconcertingly, equivalent effect sizes for hyper- and hypo-secretion (Pearson, Tarabulsy, & Bussières, 2015).”

• cites Pearson, Tarabulsy, & Bussières, 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In a prospective study, cortisol levels among adolescent girls, but not boys, were predicted by poverty during infancy and adolescence, but not childhood.

“In a prospective study, cortisol levels among adolescent girls, but not boys were predicted by poverty during infancy and adolescence, but not childhood (McFarland & Hayward, 2014).”

• cites McFarland & Hayward, 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Longer time in orphanage care was associated with lower methylation of the FKBP5 gene during adolescence, something that might put youth at risk for PTSD.

“Longer time in orphanage care was associated with lower methylation of the FKBP5 gene during adolescence (Non et al., 2016), something that might put youth at risk for PTSD.”

• cites Non et al., 2016Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Mounting evidence suggests prenatal development as a time when HPA axis programming may occur, but whether this means elevations or suppressions is not completely clear.

“Mounting evidence is emerging for prenatal development as a time during which programing of the axis may occur; however, whether this means elevations or suppressions is not completely clear.”

May combine two claims.

A meta-analysis concluded that youth with Major Depressive Disorder have higher basal cortisol and poorer feedback regulation compared to non-MDD youth.

“A meta-analysis concluded that youth with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) have higher basal cortisol and poorer feedback regulation compared to non-MDD youth (Lopez-Duran, Kovacs, & George, 2009).”

• cites Lopez-Duran, Kovacs, & George, 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Prenatal exposure to significant maternal stress tends to be associated with poorer outcomes and higher cortisol levels in children.

“Prenatal exposure to significant maternal stress tends to be associated with poorer outcomes and higher cortisol levels in children (Zijlmans, Riksen-Walraven, & de Weerth, 2015).”

• cites Zijlmans, Riksen-Walraven, & de Weerth, 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

These conditions are also associated with increased externalizing problems and a number of studies now provide evidence that down-regulation of HPA and autonomic systems may mediate these effects.

“These conditions are also associated with increased externalizing problems and a number of studies now provide evidence that down-regulation of HPA and autonomic systems may mediate these effects.”

May combine two claims.

Flatter diurnal slopes at age 11 were associated with alcohol use between ages 15-18 which in turn predicted flatter diurnal slopes at age 18.5.

“However, there is some evidence of bidirectional effects; flatter diurnal slopes at age 11 were associated with alcohol use between ages 15–18 which in turn predicted flatter diurnal slopes at age 18.5 (Ruttle, Maslowsky, Armstrong, Burk, & Essex, 2015).”

• cites Ruttle, Maslowsky, Armstrong, Burk, & Essex, 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

While the evidence for this assertion is growing, it is far from conclusive, instead supporting a "more work is needed" conclusion.

“While the evidence for this assertion is growing, it is far from conclusive, instead supporting a “more work is needed” conclusion.”

May combine two claims.

Salis et al. (2016) showed that blunted diurnal cortisol rhythms at age 6 predicted increasing conduct problems from ages 6 to 9, but the reverse direction was not supported.

“Salis et al. (2016) showed that blunted diurnal cortisol rhythms at age 6 predicted increasing conduct problems from ages 6 to 9, but the reverse direction was not supported.”

• cites Salis et al. (2016)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The emergence of depression during adolescence was coupled with increases in markers of inflammation, but this was only noted among youth exposed to higher levels of childhood adversity.

“The emergence of depression during adolescence was coupled with increases in markers of inflammation (e.g., C-reactive protein, CRP; interleukin-6, IL-6); however, this was only noted among youth exposed to higher levels of childhood adversity (Miller & Cole, 2012).”

• cites Miller & Cole, 2012Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Both concurrent and predictive associations between cortisol activity and externalizing problems have been reported.

“Both concurrent and predictive associations between cortisol activity and externalizing problems have been reported.”

May combine two claims.

Low but increasing morning cortisol across childhood was associated with elevated anxiety symptoms and elevated and extended HPA activation in stress paradigms six years later.

“Consistent with a stress sensitization hypothesis, a recent longitudinal study examining multiple aspects of HPA functioning found low but increasing morning cortisol across childhood was associated with elevated anxiety symptoms and elevated and extended HPA activation in stress paradigms six years later (Laurent, Gilliam, Wright, & Fisher, 2015).”

• cites Laurent, Gilliam, Wright, & Fisher, 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Young adults experiencing higher adversity prior to age 16 exhibited a constellation of changes that included unstable regulation of emotion and behavioral instability, along with blunted cortisol and autonomic reactivity.

“Young adults experiencing higher adversity prior to age 16 exhibited a constellation of changes that included unstable regulation of emotion and behavioral instability, along with blunted cortisol and autonomic reactivity (Lovallo, 2013).”

• cites Lovallo, 2013Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Platje et al. (2013) found lower morning cortisol was predictive of adolescent aggression and rule-breaking one year later, but not the reverse.

“Similarly, Platje et al. (2013) found lower morning cortisol was predictive of adolescent aggression and rule-breaking one year later, but not the reverse.”

• cites Platje et al. (2013)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Not all studies are consistent; different results are found for younger children when MDD is less common and often confounded with significant family adversity.

“Notably different results are found for younger children when MDD is less common and often confounded with significant family adversity (von Klitzing et al., 2014).”

• cites von Klitzing et al., 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Girls with MDD exhibited hypocortisolism early in puberty but hypercortisolism at later pubertal stages.

“Colich et al. (2015) showed that girls with MDD exhibited hypocortisolism early in puberty but hypercortisolism at later pubertal stages.”

• cites Colich et al. (2015)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Ruttle et al. (2014) noted lower afternoon cortisol levels among youth with higher concordance between internalizing symptoms and negative life experiences, and higher cortisol among youth who exhibited high symptoms without concomitantly high negative life events.

“Consistent with this argument,Ruttle et al. (2014) noted lower afternoon cortisol levels among youth with higher concordance between internalizing symptoms and negative life experiences, and higher cortisol among youth who exhibited high symptoms without concomitantly high negative life events.”

• cites Ruttle et al. (2014)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Longitudinal work supports the idea that children with PTSD tend to exhibit elevations, while adolescents evidence lowered cortisol activity.

“Longitudinal work supports the idea that children with PTSD tend to exhibit elevations, while adolescents evidence lowered cortisol activity.”

May combine two claims.

Initial studies with children with PTSD were perplexing because, unlike adults, these children often had elevated cortisol.

“Initial studies with children with PTSD were perplexing because, unlike adults (Yehuda, 2002), these children often had elevated cortisol (Carrion et al., 2002).”

• cites Yehuda, 2002Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Carrion et al., 2002Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Others have argued that low HPA activity is associated more with callous-unemotional traits and not with other forms of externalizing.

“Relatedly, others have argued that low HPA activity is associated more with callous-unemotional traits and not with other forms of externalizing (Hawes, Brennan, & Dadds, 2009).”

• cites Hawes, Brennan, & Dadds, 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Research on immune functioning notes associations between adversity, inflammation, and psychopathology.

“For example, research on immune functioning notes associations between adversity, inflammation, and psychopathology.”

• cites Miller & Cole, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Little research has integrated sleep into studies of adversity, HPA axis functioning, and psychopathology.

“While problematic sleep is a symptom of psychopathology, little research has integrated sleep into studies of adversity, HPA axis functioning, and psychopathology.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

We are still far from understanding the various pathways through which adversity 'gets under the skin' to influence stress and development, nor do we understand the boundaries of sensitive periods for these effects.

“However, we are still far from understanding the various pathways through which adversity ‘gets under the skin’ to influence stress and development, nor do we understand the boundaries of sensitive periods for these effects.”