The relationship between rumination, avoidance and depression in a non-clinical sample.
Abstract
Recent commentaries have proposed conceptualizations of rumination in terms of both cognitive and behavioral avoidance. This study examined the relationship between rumination, avoidance and depression using a newly developed self-report measure of avoidance in depression, the Cognitive-Behavioral Avoidance Scale (CBAS) [Ottenbreit, N.D., & Dobson, K.S. (2004). Avoidance and depression: The construction of the cognitive-behavioral avoidance scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 293-313]. A non-clinical sample (N=104) of undergraduate students completed self-report measures of depression, anxiety, rumination and avoidance. Rumination, avoidance and depression were all significantly correlated. Rumination and behavioral avoidance remained intercorrelated when anxiety was controlled, confirming an association that is independent of anxiety. By contrast, the relationship between cognitive avoidance and rumination disappeared when anxiety was partialled out. Notably, avoidance predicted unique variance in depression scores, over and above anxiety and rumination. Consistent with the proposal of Ottenbreit and Dobson [Avoidance and depression: The construction of the cognitive-behavioral avoidance scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 293-313], our findings support the value of clinicians and psychopathologists giving consideration to avoidance in their conceptualization of depression.
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The effect of conflict at work on well-being: Depressive symptoms as a vulnerability factor
Meier, L. L., Semmer, N. K., & Gross, S. (2014) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2013.876691 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Psychosocial correlates of depressive rumination
Pearson, K. A., Watkins, E. R., Mullan, E. G., & Moberly, N. J. (2010) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.05.007 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Acting as we feel: Which emotional responses to the climate crisis motivate climate action
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Psychometric Properties of the Leiden Index of Depression Sensitivity (LEIDS)
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“Also, individuals who are more likely to engage in behavioral avoidance are more likely to ruminate, regardless of anxiety symptoms (Moulds et al., 2007).”
BackgroundIs Rumination after Bereavement Linked with Loss Avoidance? Evidence from Eye-Tracking
Eisma, M. C., Schut, H. A. W., Stroebe, M., van den Bout, J., Stroebe, W., & Boelen, P. A. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0104980 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“, [20,23,25–29]).”
Submissive interpersonal style mediates the effect of brooding on future depressive symptoms
Pearson, K. A., Watkins, E. R., & Mullan, E. G. (2010) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.05.029 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
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The Potential for Outdoor Nature-Based Interventions in the Treatment and Prevention of Depression
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The Benefits and Burdens of Work Moralization on Creativity
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Emotion Regulation: Definition and Relevance for Mental Health
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Toward an assessment of escape/avoidance coping in depression.
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“There has been some literature to date that has conceptualized rumination as a form of experiential avoidance (Moulds et al. 2007; Borkovec et al. 1998) or a process that leads to avoidance (Bjornsson et al.”
BackgroundGutenbrunner, C., Salmon, K., & Jose, P. E. (2017) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0278-5 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
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Emotional and Cognitive Coping in Relationship Dissolution
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“The CBAS has demonstrated good reliability and convergent as well as divergent validity in previous studies (Moulds et al., 2007; Ottenbreit and Dobson, 2004; Röthlin et al., 2010).”
MethodResultThe Rapid Perceptual Impact of Emotional Distractors
Kennedy, B. L., & Most, S. B. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129320 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Rumination (particularly a “brooding” subscale) refers to the tendency to dwell on negative experiences from the past and is often associated with depression [43–44], and evidence suggests that rumination is associated with a biased attention toward negative stimuli [45–46].”
BackgroundBrockmeyer, T., Holtforth, M. G., Krieger, T., Altenstein, D., Doerig, N., Zimmermann, J., Backenstrass, M., Friederich, H., & Bents, H. (2015) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1885 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Rumination in dysphoric mothers negatively affects mother–infant interactions
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“, active examination of one's emotions) (Moulds et al., 2007).”
Tester‐Jones, M., O’Mahen, H., Watkins, E. R., & Karl, A. (2015) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2015.02.014 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Toward an Integration of Interpersonal Risk Models of Depression and Cognitive‐Behaviour Therapy
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The Effects of Experiential Avoidance and Rumination on Depression among College Students
Bjornsson, A. S., Carey, G., Hauser, M., Karris, A., Kaufmann, V., Sheets, E. S., & Craighead, W. E. (2010) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2010.3.4.389 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“How are experiential avoidance and rumination likely to be related? Some researchers have equated the concepts of experiential avoidance and rumination (Moulds et al., 2007), based on Borkovec and colleagues’ theory that ruminative worry serves an avoidance function (e.”
BackgroundNasrin, F., Rimes, K. A., Reinecke, A., Rinck, M., & Barnhofer, T. (2016) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465816000394 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
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The relationship between the maladaptive self-beliefs characteristic of social anxiety and avoidance
Wong, Q. J. J., & Moulds, M. L. (2010) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.11.004 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Each of the CBAS subscales also show moderate positive correlations with both anxiety and depression (Moulds et al., 2007; Ottenbreit & Dobson, 2004).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWorry and rumination in older adults: Differentiating the processes
D’Hudson, G., & Saling, L. L. (2010) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607861003713141 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“( 2002 ) suggested that worry and rumination may both serve an avoidance function and this has since been reiterated by other researchers (Moulds, Kandris, Starr, & Wong, 2007 ; Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 2008 ; Watkins & Moulds, 2007 ).”
ResultSmith, K. E., Mason, T. B., Anderson, N. L., & Lavender, J. M. (2019) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2019.01.003 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Hall, S. A., Brodar, K. E., LaBar, K. S., Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2018) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2018.05.009 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“People with PTSD avoid thinking about their trauma (Berntsen et al., 2003; Moulds et al., 2007) and avoid emotionally processing memories (Williams and Moulds, 2007).”
Lucena‐Santos, P., Pinto‐Gouveia, J., Carvalho, S. A., & Oliveira, M. D. S. (2018) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12168 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“In fact, rumination seems to be significantly correlated with psychopathology indicators when avoidance is involved (Moulds et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMonteregge, S., Tsagkalidou, A., Cuijpers, P., & Spinhoven, P. (2020) · Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/cpsp.12316 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“…on the fact that one is depressed; on one's symptoms of depression; and on the causes, meanings, and consequences of depressive symptoms” (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991, p. 569) is implicated in the onset and maintenance of depressive episodes (Moulds, Kandris, Starr, & Wong, 2007; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991).”
BackgroundFernando, K., & Medlicott, L. (2009) · Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability · doi:10.1080/13668250902845228 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Anxiety, depression, and oscillatory dynamics in a social interaction model
Knyazev, G. G., Savostyanov, A. N., Bocharov, A. V., & Rimareva, J. M. (2016) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2016.04.075 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
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Bunaciu, L., Feldner, M. T., Blumenthal, H., Babson, K. A., Schmidt, N. B., & Sachs‐Ericsson, N. (2009) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.10.001 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
McEvoy, P. M., Moulds, M. L., & Mahoney, A. (2012) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.07.011 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationThe association of changes in repetitive negative thinking with changes in depression and anxiety
Hijne, K., Penninx, B. W., van Hemert, A. M., & Spinhoven, P. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.07.002 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The Role of Relational Uncertainty in Topic Avoidance among Couples with Depression
Knobloch, L. K., Sharabi, L. L., Delaney, A. L., & Suranne, S. M. (2015) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637751.2014.998691 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“context of depression has received less consideration (Moulds et al., 2007; Trew, 2011). We posed relational uncertainty as an explanation for why people experiencing depressive symptoms may be reluctant to talk about delicate topics with their romantic partner. Our results indicated that both depressive symptoms (H1)…”
BackgroundInfluentialRumination Derails Reinforcement Learning With Possible Implications for Ineffective Behavior
Hitchcock, P., Forman, E. M., Rothstein, N. J., Zhang, F., Kounios, J., Niv, Y., & Sims, C. R. (2021) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026211051324 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“, 2017), avoidance of challenge (Moulds et al., 2007), low goal attainment (Moberly & Watkins, 2010), reckless behavior (Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991), impaired cognitive performance (e.”
BackgroundTransdiagnostic View on Worrying and Other Negative Mental Content
Ehring, T. W., & Behar, E. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119189909.ch4 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Forrai, M., Koban, K., & Matthes, J. (2023) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2023.101969 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
- Authors
- Moulds, M. L., Kandris, E., Starr, S., & Wong, A. C. M.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Moulds, Michelle L.
- ORCID
- Moulds, Michelle L.
- Venue
- Behaviour Research and Therapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2007-02
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 251-261
- ISSN
- 0005-7967 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2054658204
- Cited by
- 289
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 7.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Behaviour Research and Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- University of New South Wales
- Australian Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Keywords
- rumination, avoidance, depression, cognitive avoidance, behavioral avoidance, anxiety, non-clinical sample, undergraduate students, conceptualization of depression
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Anxiety, Avoidance Learning, Cognition, Depression, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Self Concept, Sex Factors, Social Behavior, Thinking
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