Occurrence and source characterization of perfluorochemicals in an urban watershed
Abstract
Perfluorochemicals (PFCs) are used in numerous applications, mainly as surfactants, and occur ubiquitously in the environment as complex mixtures. This study was undertaken to characterize the occurrence and sources of commonly detected PFC compounds in surface waters of the Marina catchment, a watershed that drains an urbanized section of Singapore. Of the 19 target PFCs, 13 were detected with perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) (5-31 ng L(-1)) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) (1-156 ng L(-1)) being the dominant components. Other compounds detected included perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (C7-C12) and perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (C6 and C8). Sulfonamide compounds detected 2-(N-ethylperfluorooctanesulfonamido) acetic acid (N-EtFOSAA), 2-(N-methylperfluorooctanesulfonamido) acetic acid (N-MeFOSAA), perfluorooctanesulfonamido acetic acid (FOSAA) and perfluorooctanesulfonamide (FOSA) were putative transformation products of N-EtFOSE and N-MeFOSE, the N-ethylated and N-methylated ethyl alcohol derivatives, respectively. Surface water concentrations were generally higher during dry weather than during storm water flow: the median concentrations of total PFCs in dry and wet weather were 57 and 138 ng L(-1) compared to 42 and 79 ng L(-1), respectively, at Stamford and Alexandra canal, suggesting the presence of a continuous source(s) which is subject to dilution during storm events. In rain water, median concentrations were 6.4 ng L(-1), suggesting rain contributed from 12-25% to the total PFC load for non-point source sites. The longitudinal concentration profile along one of the canals revealed a point source of sulfonated PFCs (PFOS), believed to originate from aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF). Sources were characterized using principal component analysis (PCA) and by plotting PFHxS/PFOA against PFOS/PFOA. Typical surface waters exhibit PFOS/PFOA and PFHxS/PFOA ratios below 0.9 and 0.5, respectively. PCA plots reveal waters impacted by "non-typical" PFC sources in Alexandra canal.
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Median concentrations of total PFAS in the heavily urbanized watershed in Singapore were higher (3.7-85.2 times for dry weather and 2.9-19.7 times for wet weather) than in this study, with an observed decrease in PFAS concentrations during wet weather due to already high PFAS concentrations in the dry weather sample.
“Median concentrations of total PFAS in the heavily urbanized watershed in Singapore were higher (3.7 -85.2 times for DW and 2.9 -19.7 times for WW) than in this study, with an observed decrease in PFAS concentrations during WW due to already high PFAS concentrations in the DW sample.”
From Stormwater discharges affect PFAS occurrence, concentrations, and spatial distribution in water and bottom sediment of urban streams (2025) · cites this paper as Nguyen et al., 2011
Surface runoff is considered as one of the main sources of PFAS pollution in surface water.
“Therefore, it is not surprising that surface runoff is considered as one of the main sources of PFAS pollution in surface water (Nguyen et al., 2011; Zhao et al., 2013).”
From Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as a contaminant of emerging concern in surface water: A transboundary review of their occurrences and toxicity effects (2021) · cites this paper as Nguyen et al., 2011
The concentrations of PFNA, PFDA, and PFUnA from US studies (including the current study) are relatively lower than those from studies of Japan and Singapore.
“In addition, compared with other studies (Kim and Kannan, 2007; Murakami et al., 2009; Nguyen et al., 2011; Zushi et al., 2008) about these five PFAS in the stormwater, the concentration of PFNA, PFDA, and PFUnA from US studies (including our study) are relatively lower than those from studies of Japan and Singapore.”
From Evaluation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in landfill liquids from Pennsylvania, Colorado, and Wisconsin (2024) · cites this paper as Nguyen et al., 2011
BPA has been quantified globally in outdoor air and is generally particle-associated; this suggests the potential role of deposition via precipitation to the landscape, though few measurements in rainfall are available.
“BPA has been quan-tied globally in outdoor air and is generally particle-associated; 86 this suggests the potential role of deposition via precipitation to the landscape, though few measurements in rainfall are available.”
From Storms mobilize organophosphate esters, bisphenols, PFASs, and vehicle-derived contaminants to San Francisco Bay watersheds (2024) · cites this paper as [86]
The diversity of PFAS in wastewater may stem from PFAS being washed out from consumer products, emitted from industrial activities, and released from landfill leachate treated in wastewater treatment plants.
“This diversity may stem from PFAS being washed-out from consumer products [36,60,91], being emitted from industrial activities [21,65,132], and being released from landfill leachate treated in wastewater treatment plants [75,122].”
From Investigating the extent of PFAS contamination in the Upper Danube Basin across environmental compartments (2025) · cites this paper as [91]
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“…studies have primarily focused on per-fluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) and perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (PFSAs) only, thus leaving PFAS precursors unaddressed, and have not examined water-sediment interactions (Meyer et al., 2011; Müller et al., 2011; Nguyen et al., 2011; Zushi and Masunaga, 2009).”
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“These concentrations were typically below the range detected in the tributaries of a catchment in Singapore (Table 4) which has a population comparable to Brisbane of approximately 1 million people (Nguyen et al., 2011).”
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Fuchte, H. E., Beck, N., Bieg, E., Bayer, V. J., Achten, C., Krauss, M. K. V., Schäffer, A., & Smith, K. E. C. (2022) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119047 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Nguyen, V. T., Gin, K. Y., Reinhard, M., & Liu, C. (2012) · Water Science & Technology · doi:10.2166/wst.2012.475 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationTemporal variation of faecal indicator bacteria in tropical urban storm drains
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“…PFOS, 0.1 to 0.3 lg L-1 for the sum of PFOA and PFOS, 1 lg L-1 for PFHxA, 0.3 lg L-1 for PFHpA, 3 to 9 lg L-1 for PFBS, and 0.3 lg L-1 for PFHxS (Takagi et al. 2008; Drinking Water Commission 2006; Nguyen et al. 2011; Weiss et al. 2012; Bao et al. 2011; Murakami et al. 2009; Wilhelm et al. 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialAssociations of chemical tracers and faecal indicator bacteria in a tropical urban catchment
Ekklesia, E., Shanahan, P., Chua, L. H. C., & Eikaas, H. S. (2015) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2015.02.037 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“…al., 2004; Tixier et al., 2003), to assess the occurrence of certain tracers in various environments (Buerge et al., 2009, 2003; Buser et al., 1999; Nguyen et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2008; Xu et al., 2011) and to understand their correlation with conventional indicator bacteria (Isobe et al., 2002;…”
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Tenorio, R., Maizel, A. C., Schaefer, C. E., Higgins, C. P., & Strathmann, T. J. (2022) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.2c03228 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Wang, Q., & Kelly, B. C. (2017) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.092 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Goukeh, M. N., & Alamdari, N. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Engineering · doi:10.1061/joeedu.eeeng-7478 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Li, X., Wang, Y., Qian, C., Zheng, Z.-P., Shi, Y.-L., Cui, J.-S., & Cai, Y.-Q. (2022) · Journal of Environmental Science · doi:10.1016/j.jes.2022.01.031 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Batayi, B., Okonkwo, J. O., & Daso, A. P. (2021) · Water SA · doi:10.17159/wsa/2021.v47.i1.9445 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
A Review of Emerging Contaminants in Water
Stefanakis, A. I., & Becker, J. A. (2019) · Waste Management · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-1210-4.ch008 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Toxicity of perfluorooctanoic acid to Pseudomonas putida in the aquatic environment
Chen, H., Yao, J., Wang, F., Cai, M., & Liu, H. (2013) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.09.046 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Detection of Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs) in Nakdong River Basin
Son, H.-J., Hwang, Y.-D., Yoom, H.-S., Choi, J.-T., & Kwon, K.-W. (2013) · 대한환경공학회지 · doi:10.4491/ksee.2013.35.2.084 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
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Chen, Y., Zhang, H., Liu, Y., Bowden, J. A., Townsend, T. G., & Solo-Gabriele, H. M. (2024) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141719 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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“This diversity may stem from PFAS being washed-out from consumer products [36, 60, 91], being emitted from industrial activities [21, 65, 132], and being released from landfill leachate treated in wastewater treatment plants [75, 122].”
Monthly Variations in Perfluorinated Compound Concentrations in Groundwater
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“Previous studies have found a similar pattern in concentrations when studying AFFF [38,39].”
ResultWang, L., Chen, S., Hou, H., Cao, M., Zhou, Z., Cao, H., Chen, M., Liang, Y., & Wang, Y. (2022) · ACS ES&T Water · doi:10.1021/acsestwater.2c00435 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The Investigation of Perfluorinated Compounds in Surface Waters of the Xixi Wetland, Hangzhou, China
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“However, these compounds are still widely used because of their low cost and versatility, and have been detected in various surface waters of rivers and lakes (Nakayama et al. 2007; Nguyen et al. 2011; Kimet al. 2011; Loos et al. 2008; Pan et al. 2011, 2014; Pico et al. 2012, So et al. 2007).”
BackgroundApplication of On-Line SPE-LC/MSD to Measure Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs) in Water
Son, H.-J., Yoom, H.-S., Jung, J.-M., & Jang, S.-H. (2013) · 대한환경공학회지 · doi:10.4491/ksee.2013.35.2.075 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Sources of Environmental Pollution: Persistent Organic Pollutants
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Watershed: trends and approach of applicability in urban environment
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Perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic acid in Qiantang River waters of China
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“2 ng/l) (Nguyen et al., 2011), western coast in Korea (68.”
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Perfluorinated Compounds in Water and Fish from Rivers and Lakes in the World
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Perfluorinated Compounds in Water of Lake Biwa and Nearby Rivers and Sediment of Lake Biwa
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Dillon, K. S. (2015) · Gulf and Caribbean Research · doi:10.18785/gcr.2601.05
“…area had a mean PFOA concentration of 9.3 ng/l (Xiao et al. 2011) while an urbanized region of Singapore had PFOA concentrations of 5 ng/l — 31 ng/l (Nguyen et al 2011), and storm-water runoff in Tokyo had PFOA concentrations ranging from 15 ng/l to about 105 ng/l (Murakami et al. 2009a).”
BackgroundInfluentialEkklesia, E. (2014) · doi:10.32657/10356/60978
“Some studies suggest but do not substantiate that surface water contamination may originate from leaking sewers (Sercu et al. 2009; Nguyen et al. 2011;Xu et al. 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialOccurrence and photochemical fate of perfluorochemicals in a tropical urban watershed
Nguyen, V. T. (2011) · doi:10.32657/10356/46533
“4.3) are consistent with the surface water concentrations determined previously (Nguyen et al., 2011c) .”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationBioaccumulation and ecotoxicity study of perfluorinated chemicals
Liu, C. (2014) · doi:10.32657/10356/61603
“Although PFOS and PFOA are the predominant PFCs detected in the environment, other long chain PFCs such as PFNA and PFDA were also frequently detected and may account for higher proportions in organisms (Ishibashi et al. 2008, Nguyen et al. 2011).”
BackgroundParajulee, A. (2017) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Fate of Emerging Water Pollutants
Ayub, M. A., Zia‐ur‐Rehman, M., Umar, W., et al. (2022) · BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS eBooks · doi:10.2174/97897815040739122010009
- Authors
- Nguyen, V. T., Reinhard, M., & Karina, G. Y.-H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- ORCID
- Reinhard, Martin
- Venue
- Chemosphere
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-02
- Volume
- 82
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1277-1285
- ISSN
- 0045-6535 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2075478341
- Cited by
- 112
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 6.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Chemosphere (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- National University of Singapore (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Urban Stormwater Management Solutions
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Keywords
- perfluorochemicals, PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFHxS, perfluoroalkyl carboxylates, perfluoroalkyl sulfonates, aqueous film-forming foam, point source pollution, non-point source pollution, urban watersheds, surface water contamination, stormwater runoff, source apportionment
- MeSH terms
- Caprylates, Cities, Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Fresh Water, Seawater, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Pollution, Chemical, Water Supply, Alkanesulfonic Acids
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