Perfluorooctane Sulfonate in US Ambient Surface Waters: A Review of Occurrence in Aquatic Environments and Comparison to Global Concentrations
Open accessAbstract
Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) is one of the dominant perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) detected in aquatic ecosystems. It has been used in a wide range of industrial and consumer products for decades. The unique properties of PFOS, including its stability and resistance to degradation, have made it highly persistent in the aquatic environment. Because of its persistence, potential toxicity, and occurrence in aquatic ecosystems, interest in PFOS has increased in recent decades. Despite this interest, current information on the environmental distribution of PFOS in ambient surface waters of the United States is fairly limited. This critical review summarizes the currently available literature on PFOS occurrence in surface waters across the United States and highlights existing data gaps. Available data are largely from a handful of study areas with known PFAS manufacturing or industrial uses, with much of the data collected from freshwater systems in eastern states and the upper Midwest. Measured PFOS concentrations in surface waters vary widely, over 8 orders of magnitude, with the highest concentrations occurring downstream from manufacturing and industrial use plants, areas near aqueous film-forming foam-use sites, and sites where PFOS precursors were used in textile treatment. Non-point source-related occurrences are highest near urbanized areas with high population densities. Current data illustrate the occurrence of PFOS in surface waters across multiple US states. Additional data are needed to better understand PFOS occurrence in US aquatic ecosystems, particularly in estuarine and marine systems and where monitoring data are not available (e.g., southwestern, central, and western United States). Additional PFOS occurrence data would provide valuable information on potential spatial and temporal variability in surface waters and possible risks posed to aquatic ecosystems. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:2425-2442. Published 2021. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
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- Authors
- Jarvis, A. L., Justice, J. R., Elias, M. C., Schnitker, B., & Gallagher, K.
- Affiliations
- Environmental Protection Agency (US)
- Corresponding author
- Jarvis, Amanda L.
- Venue
- Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2021-06-29
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 2425-2442
- ISSN
- 0730-7268 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-8618
- PMC
- PMC9327793
- OpenAlex
- W3173726691
- Cited by
- 105
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 0.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
- Office of Research and Development
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Environmental Chemistry and Analysis
- Keywords
- PFOS, PFAS, perfluorinated compounds, surface water contamination, United States, industrial pollution, aqueous film-forming foam, textile treatment, non-point source pollution, urban environment, data gaps, spatiotemporal variation
- MeSH terms
- Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Alkanesulfonic Acids, Ecosystem
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