Social Network Sites and Well-Being: The Role of Social Connection
Open accessAbstract
In the early days of the Internet, both conventional wisdom and scholarship deemed online communication a threat to well-being. Later research has complicated this picture, offering mixed evidence about how technology-mediated communication affects users. With the dawn of social network sites, this issue is more important than ever. A close examination of the extensive body of research on social network sites suggests that conflicting results can be reconciled by a single theoretical approach: the interpersonal-connection-behaviors framework. Specifically, we suggest that social network sites benefit their users when they are used to make meaningful social connections and harm their users through pitfalls such as isolation and social comparison when they are not. The benefits and drawbacks of using social network sites shown in existing research can largely be explained by this approach, which also posits the need for studying specific online behaviors in future research.
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Online social networking site use tends to be related to less internalizing when it includes positive interactions, enhances social support, and facilitates social connectedness.
“online social networking site use tends to be related to less internalizing, to the extent that it includes positive interactions, enhances social support, and facilitates social connectedness”
From Annual Research Review: Adolescent mental health in the digital age: facts, fears, and future directions. (2020) · cites this paper as Clark, Algoe, & Green, 2018
The Conclusions link connection-promoting social-network use and social support with higher well-being. The Behavior on Social Network Sites and Well-Being section also reports decreased loneliness among adolescents whose Facebook use was motivated by connection. The paper does not establish the broader claim of less internalizing, such as fewer depressive or anxiety symptoms, for positive interactions generally. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOnline social networking site use tends to be associated with more internalizing when it is excessive, reduces in-person interactions, or involves negative interactions or social comparisons.
“tends to be associated with more internalizing in instances when it is excessive, reduces time spent in in-person interactions, and in which interactions are negative or involve social comparisons”
From Annual Research Review: Adolescent mental health in the digital age: facts, fears, and future directions. (2020) · cites this paper as Clark, Algoe, & Green, 2018
In “Associations Between Use of Social Network Sites and Lower Well-Being” (page unavailable), the paper links social comparison to depression and non-interactive use to loneliness. It does not establish that excessive use or negative interactions, as such, are associated with more internalizing; its discussion of displaced face-to-face socializing concerns earlier Internet use rather than social network sites specifically. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe ways in which people use social media can influence their well-being.
“the ways in which they use social media can also influence their well-being,60,61”
From Social Media Use and Its Link to Physical Health Indicators (2022) · cites this paper as [61]
People use social media for a variety of reasons.
“people use social media for a variety of reasons”
From Social Media Use and Its Link to Physical Health Indicators (2022) · cites this paper as [61]
Passive use of social media (e.g., lurking) has been associated with increased loneliness and lowered well-being.
“Further, the passive use of social media, in particular (e.g.lurking behaviors; scrolling through others' feeds without actually engaging), has been associated with increased loneliness and lowered well-being [51,52,53 ,54 ,55].”
From Two social lives: how differences between online and offline interaction influence social outcomes (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
Online interaction can harm well-being and reduce sociality if it displaces in-person connections.
“Online interaction can harm well-being and reduce sociality if it displaces in-person connections [51,52,53 ,54 ].”
From Two social lives: how differences between online and offline interaction influence social outcomes (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
Online interactions can complement and strengthen existing personal connections.
“Online interactions can not only build new connections, but they can also complement and strengthen existing personal connections [51,52,54 ,58].”
From Two social lives: how differences between online and offline interaction influence social outcomes (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
Different ways in which people use social media can influence their well-being.
“the different ways in which people use social media can influence their well-being (e.g., Verduyn et al., 2015; see Clark et al., 2018)”
From Social media use and systemic inflammation: The moderating role of self-esteem (2021) · cites this paper as Clark et al., 2018
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“Our data are consistent with the findings that social media is a favored outlet for social support, particularly during times of mandated social isolation [6,33,35,36].”
BackgroundResultExploring the “socialness” of social media
Kaye, L. K. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100083 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Social Media Use and Its Link to Physical Health Indicators
Lee, D. S., Jiang, T., Crocker, J., & Way, B. M. (2022) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2021.0188 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Gudka, M., Gardiner, K. L. K., & Lomas, T. (2023) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2021.1991447 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“The Stimulation Hypothesis proposes that online communication stimulates subjective wellbeing by facilitating social activities offline with close friends (Clark et al., 2018).”
BackgroundStević, A., Schmuck, D., Matthes, J., & Karsay, K. (2019) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2019.1680732 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Vaughan, C., Trail, T. E., Mahmud, A., Dellva, S., Tanielian, T., & Friedman, E. (2018) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.9895 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Scholars have recently argued that the benefits of social network groups depend on the network’s ability to facilitate social connections between members [25,26].”
BackgroundDesire to Belong Affects Instagram Behavior and Perceived Social Support
Wong, D., Amon, K. L., & Keep, M. (2019) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2018.0533 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Given the rising popularity of Instagram, 14,15 this nuanced research is needed.”
Ebrahimi, P., Ahmadi, M., Gholampour, A., & Alipour, H. (2019) · International Journal of Emerging Markets · doi:10.1108/ijoem-11-2018-0588 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Social experiences and youth psychopathology during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal study
Rodman, A. M., Rosen, M. L., Kasparek, S. W., Mayes, M., Lengua, L. J., Meltzoff, A. N., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2022) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579422001250 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Importantly, it is critical that digital socializing be active and engaging, given previous work demonstrating high levels of passive screen time may negatively impact wellbeing (Burke & Kraut, 2016; Clark et al., 2018; Rosen et al., 2021).”
BackgroundWadsley, M. G., Covey, J. A., & Ihssen, N. (2021) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941211025271 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“While a sizeable body of literature has drawn links between excessive SNS use and lower wellbeing, Clark et al. (2018) suggest that SNSs are beneficial to users when they are used to make meaningful social connections.”
BackgroundResultVirtual social interaction and loneliness among emerging adults amid the COVID-19 pandemic
Towner, E., Tomova, L., Ladensack, D., Chu, K. A., & Callaghan, B. L. (2022) · Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cresp.2022.100058 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Online social networking and subjective well-being: Mediating effects of envy and fatigue
Zhou, M., & Zhang, X. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103598 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Androniceanu, A., Georgescu, I. A., & Sabie, O. M. (2022) · Central European Public Administration Review · doi:10.17573/cepar.2022.2.01 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“In Clark’s opinion (Clark et al., 2018), the pattern of interconnections and conduct are the two primary factors that determine the direction of the influence that social networks have on an individual’s subjec - tive well-being (Gajdoš and Hudec, 2020).”
BackgroundXiao, W., Peng, J., & Liao, S. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192013496 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“While engagement with social media can increase feelings of social connectedness and well-being [3,4], research has largely focused on examining the potential for negative mental health effects from excessive use [5,6].”
BackgroundKarsay, K., Matthes, J., Schmuck, D., & Ecklebe, S. (2022) · Social science computer review · doi:10.1177/08944393211058308 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“In line with this hypothesis, we assumed that young individuals benefit from IM because it is likely to promote connection and belongingness—which are crucial predictors for social development and affective well-being (Clark et al., 2018; Wilson & Wilson, 2014).”
BackgroundInternet Use, Social Networks, and Loneliness Among the Older Population in China
Tang, D., Jin, Y., Zhang, K., & Wang, D. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.895141 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Social media use, psychological well-being and physical health during lockdown
Yue, Z., Lee, D. S., Xiao, J., & Zhang, R. (2021) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2021.2013917 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“without meaningful social interactions, may fail to enhance interpersonal connection or well-being (Baym, 2015; Clark et al., 2017).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialJones, L. M., Mitchell, K. J., & Beseler, C. L. (2023) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-023-00465-5 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Research has documented the greater online risks for emotionally vulnerable youth (Hinduja & Patchin, 2007; Wells & Mitchell, 2008); and, for youth today, peer relationships require savvy and skill navigating online communication in healthy ways (Clark et al., 2018).”
Relationships between Social Networking Sites Use and Self-Esteem: The Moderating Role of Gender
Ma, C. M. S. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191811462 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Although the negative impacts of SNS use on self-esteem have been found, researchers argue that SNS use maybe beneficial to well-being [30].”
BackgroundSocial media use, loneliness and psychological distress in emerging adults
Taylor, Z., Yankouskaya, A., & Panourgia, C. (2023) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2023.2209797 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Additionally, passive SMU allows for many activities that feel social but are not interactive (Clark, Algoe, and Green 2018), such as browsing pro fi les (Carpenter, Green, and LaFlam 2011).”
BackgroundMarttila, E., Koivula, A., & Räsänen, P. (2021) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-021-09665-2 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“In general, it appears that the type of use that does not facilitate interpersonal connection is more detrimental to users’ health and well-being (Clark et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSocial media use and adolescents’ well-being: A note on flourishing
Marciano, L., & Viswanath, K. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1092109 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Indeed, according to the interpersonal-connectionbehaviors framework (Clark et al., 2018), the quality of the social connection experienced through social media depends on the capacity of the user to build meaningful social connections or not.”
BackgroundTibber, M., Zhao, J., & Butler, S. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106371 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Reciprocal Relationships between Trajectories of Loneliness and Screen Media Use during Adolescence
Lawrence, D. M., Hunter, S. C., Cunneen, R., Houghton, S. J., Zadow, C., Rosenberg, M., Wood, L. J., & Shilton, T. (2021) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-021-02066-3 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Ho, C.-H., & Cho, Y.-H. (2021) · Leisure Sciences · doi:10.1080/01490400.2021.2007823 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…of social media has become an effective means of fostering social capital (Ellison et al., 2007; Steinfield et al., 2012), attaining social support (Archer & Kao, 2018; Haslam et al., 2017; Kim, 2014; Utz & Breuer, 2017), and decreasing feelings of loneliness (Clark et al., 2018; Pittman, 2015).”
BackgroundExperimental effects of social behavior on well-being
Regan, A., Radošić, N., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2022) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2022.08.006 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“well-being and reduced loneliness [97,98].”
Fang, Y., Chau, A. K. C., Fung, H. H.-L., & Woo, J. (2019) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000495461 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Peer Connectedness and Social Technology Use During COVID-19 Lockdown
James, K. M., Silk, J. S., Scott, L. N., Hutchinson, E., Wang, S., Sequeira, S. L., Lu, C., Oppenheimer, C. W., & Ladouceur, C. D. (2023) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-023-01040-5 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Yet, social technology (particularly social media) is also a common source of interpersonal stress (e.g., social comparison, rejection; Clark et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2020; Nesi & Prinstein, 2015; Riehm et al., 2019) and may have negative effects on emotional health (Alonzo et al.”
BackgroundDagan, O., Groh, A. M., Madigan, S. L., & Bernard, K. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11091226 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Paiman, N., & Fauzi, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1108/jarhe-03-2023-0114 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
How to Make Digitalization Better Serve an Increasing Quality of Life?
Kryzhanovskij, O. A., Baburina, N., & Ljovkina, A. O. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13020611 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Clark, the vector of the influence of social networks on subjective well-being is determined by the structure of interpersonal connections and behavior [35].”
BackgroundKeles, B., Grealish, A., & Leamy, M. C. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04271-3 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Collectively, beneficial effects of social media are linked to its use as a means of connecting with others, especially though enabling easier connection and communication with families, friends, and new people (Anderson & Jiang, 2018a, b; Clark et al., 2018).”
Emotions, relationships, health and illness into old age
Uchino, B. N., & Rook, K. S. (2020) · Maturitas · doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.05.014 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Although there was initial concern that high levels of social media use might be harmful, the beneficial impact of internet use seems to depend on whether it is used to foster meaningful social connections [98].”
BackgroundJanavi, E., Soleimani, M., Gholampour, A., Friedrichsen, M., & Ebrahimi, P. (2021) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · doi:10.22059/jitm.2020.300799.2501 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“…and Gazit 2016; Alkhalaf et al. 2018), Facebook (Cheung et al. 2011; Chen and Widjaja 2016), Twitter (Ortega 2017), to websites and weblogs (Clark et al. 2018), YouTube (Koller et al. 2016; Bärtl 2018), and mass media such as radio and television (Scannell 1995; Drinkwater and Uncles 2007)…”
BackgroundTibber, M., & Silver, E. (2022) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1017/s1754470x22000034 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“The interpersonal–connections–behaviour framework proposes a simple but powerful idea: that SM use is (in large part) beneficial or harmful to the individual to the extent that it promotes or frustrates core desires for acceptance and belonging, respectively (social gratifications obtained) (Clark et al., 2018) [see V…”
InfluentialTo use or be used? The role of agency in social media use and well-being
Lee, A. Y., Ellison, N. B., & Hancock, J. T. (2023) · Frontiers in Computer Science · doi:10.3389/fcomp.2023.1123323 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Why is it important for people to have such a particular mindset toward their social media use? At a high level, mindsets guide people toward certain pathways of understanding and engaging with social media–mechanisms that have been explored in the context of appraisal effects and behavioral change (Claro et al., 2016…”
BackgroundThe feasibility and impact of online peer support on the well-being of higher education students
Drysdale, M., McBeath, M. L., & Callaghan, S. A. (2021) · The Journal of Mental Health Training Education and Practice · doi:10.1108/jmhtep-02-2021-0012 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Hall, J. A. (2024) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.15275 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“One of the first investigations 24 to use experience sampling found no association between social media use and momentary feelings of connection.”
InfluentialTrail, T. E., Friedman, E. M., Rutter, C. M., & Tanielian, T. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/16423 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“with a decrease in depression, our results support the theory that engaging with online social networks might help reduce social isolation, particularly when they enable users to make meaningful connections with others [39], which suggests that programs implementing online support groups should use strategies to encou…”
BackgroundResultReflective smartphone disengagement: Conceptualization, measurement, and validation
Matthes, J., Karsay, K., Hirsch, M., Stevic, A., & Schmuck, D. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.107078 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Sarwar, B., Sarwar, A., Al-Rahmi, W. M., Almogren, A. S., Salloum, S. A., & Habes, M. (2023) · Cogent Business & Management · doi:10.1080/23311975.2023.2210888 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“It frequently connects the members of society to find opportunities to work for social virtue and mutual benefits (Clark et al., 2018).”
BackgroundThe associations of use of social network sites with perceived social support and loneliness
Caba‐Machado, V., McIlroy, D., Adamuz, F. M. P., Murphy, R., & Palmer-Conn, S. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02673-9 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Velázquez, J. A. M., Gómez‐Baya, D., & Delmar, J. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.566517 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Janicke‐Bowles, S. H., Raney, A. A., Oliver, M. B., Dale, K. R., Zhao, D., Neumann, D., Clayton, R. B., & Hendry, A. A. (2022) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2022-2-1 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“It thus did not consider the interpersonal interactions (Clark et al., 2018) people engage in regularly on Facebook or other people’s interactions with the content (comments, likes) they consumed or shared.”
BackgroundBoursier, V., Gioia, F., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2023) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2022.2059605 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“increases well-being and helps to maintain personal relationships (Clark et al., 2018).”
BackgroundRobert, M., Stene, L. E., Garfin, D. R., Vandentorren, S., Motreff, Y., du Roscoat, E., & Pirard, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.509457 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Quiroz, S. I., & Mickelson, K. D. (2021) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2021-1-1 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“The results regarding active use were surprising considering previous research has indicated that active use either has no effect on well-being or a positive effect (Clark et al., 2018; Shaw et al., 2015; Verduyn et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2018).”
ResultWiafe, I., Koranteng, F. N., Owusu, E., Ekpezu, A. O., & Gyamfi, S. A. (2020) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12433 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Xiang, K., & Kong, F. (2024) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2024.107360 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Acquaintanceships (weak ties): Their role in people's web of relationships and their formation
Sprecher, S. (2022) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12430 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Social media use and well-being: testing an integrated self-determination theory model
Sheldon, K. M., & Titova, L. (2023) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2023.2185259 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“In the current research, we administered measures of all three SDT needs, to test our belief that relatedness satisfaction may be a particularly important reinforcer of SMU (Clark et al., 2018; Sheldon et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSocial media attachment: Conceptualization and formative index construction
Baboo, S., Nunkoo, R., & Köck, F. (2021) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.09.064 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
The Impact of Digitalization on Happiness: A European Perspective
Ionescu-Feleagă, L., Ionescu, B. Ș., & Stoica, O. C. (2022) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math10152766 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
- Authors
- Clark, J. L., Algoe, S. B., & Green, M. C.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
- Corresponding author
- Clark, Jenna L.
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2017-12-19
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 32-37
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- OpenAlex
- W2776212678
- Cited by
- 451
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 42 · 2025: 65 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 2
- FWCI
- 44.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Networks and Communications › Media and Digital Communication
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Digital Media and Philosophy
- Keywords
- social network sites, well-being, social connectedness, social isolation, social comparison, online communication, technology-mediated communication, online behavior
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