Rewards, aversions and affect in adolescence: emerging convergences across laboratory animal and human data
Open accessAbstract
The adolescent transition is associated with increases in reward- and sensation-seeking, peer-directed social interactions, and risk-taking, with exploratory use of alcohol and other drugs often beginning at this time. These age-related behaviors may have biological roots embedded in the evolutionary past, with similar adolescent-typical characteristics evident across a variety of mammalian species. Drawing across human behavioral and fMRI data and studies conducting in laboratory animals, this review examines processing of rewards, aversions, and affect in adolescence. Evidence for both hyper- and hypo-reactivity during adolescence in the processing of rewards is reviewed, along with possible contributors to these differences. Indications of sometimes heightened reward reactivity during adolescence are contrasted with frequent attenuations in adolescent sensitivity to aversive stimuli. At the same time, adolescents appear particularly prone to becoming emotionally aroused, especially in social contexts. Emerging evidence hints that exaggerated adolescent reactivity in reward and affective systems may be promoted in part by unusual strong cross-reactivity between these systems during adolescence. Such age-related propensities may promote adolescent risk taking, especially in social and exciting contexts, and contribute to adolescent-typical propensities to attach greater benefit and less cost to risky behaviors such as alcohol and drug use than individuals at other ages.
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- Findingcitation
Non-deprived adolescent rats consistently show notably less sign-tracking than adults.
“We have found non-deprived adolescents to consistently exhibit notably less sign-tracking than adults (Doremus-Fitzwater et al, 2010; Anderson & Spear, 2011; Ung et al, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Doremus-Fitzwater et al, 2010 source
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- cites Anderson & Spear, 2011
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- cites Ung et al, 2010
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- Interpretationnone given
Adolescents are especially likely to become emotionally aroused, particularly in social situations.
“At the same time, adolescents appear particularly prone to becoming emotionally aroused, especially in social contexts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Romantic and sociosexual interests begin to emerge with puberty and sexual maturation.
“With the hormonal and physiological changes associated with puberty and the processes of sexual maturation, romantic and sociosexual interests begin to emerge (see Forbes & Dahl, 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Forbes & Dahl, 2010
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- Premisecitation
Adolescents pursue novelty and sensation-seeking more avidly than younger and older individuals.
“Adolescents also often pursue new and exciting stimuli and situations (i.e., novelty- and sensation-seeking) more avidly than younger and older individuals (see Steinberg, 2007, for review).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steinberg, 2007 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
The literature shows that adolescent reward processing can be either hyper-reactive or hypo-reactive depending on circumstances.
“Evidence for both hyper- and hypo-reactivity during adolescence in the processing of rewards is reviewed, along with possible contributors to these differences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Interpretationnone given
Exaggerated adolescent reactivity in reward and affective systems may be partly driven by unusually strong cross-reactivity between these systems during adolescence.
“Emerging evidence hints that exaggerated adolescent reactivity in reward and affective systems may be promoted in part by unusual strong cross-reactivity between these systems during adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
Adolescents differ from children and adults in how they interact with and respond to environmental stimuli.
“Adolescents often differ from children and adults in the ways they interact with and react to stimuli in their environment.”
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Sensation seeking follows an inverted U-shaped developmental curve, peaking around ages 17-18.
“Likewise, an inverted U-shaped developmental function peaking during adolescence was also reported for sensation seeking, with peak levels reached at around 17–18 years of age when defined using a scale with questions such as: “I like to explore strange places” and “I like to do frightening things” (Romer et al, 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Romer et al, 2010 source
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- Premisecitation
Developmental increases in DA regulation of PFC activity appear late in adolescence, when critical inhibitory neurons first become responsive to D2 DA receptors.
“Developmental increases in DA regulation of PFC activity emerge late in adolescence, with critical populations of inhibitory neurons only becoming responsive to activation by the D2 subtype of DA receptors at that time (Tseng & O’Donnell, 2006).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tseng & O’Donnell, 2006
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- Premisecitation
Self-reported reward-seeking follows an inverted U-shaped pattern, peaking at ages 12-15 above younger and older ages.
“For instance, Steinberg and colleagues (2009) found that self-reported reward-seeking demonstrated an inverted U-shaped function, peaking at 12 – 15 years of age at rates higher than seen at younger or older ages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steinberg et al, 2009 source
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- Premisecitation
People tested in early adolescence (11-15 years) are more sensitive to sweet substances than when tested in late adolescence or emerging adulthood (19-25 years).
“Even in terms of sweet preferences, individuals tested early in adolescence (from 11–15 years of age) were found to be more sensitive to sweet substances than when tested during late adolescence/emerging adulthood (19–25 years) (Desor & Beauchamp, 1987).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Desor & Beauchamp, 1987 source
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- Premisecitation
Competition among regions sending information to the nAc is partly controlled by DA activity there, with high DA inhibiting PFC input and facilitating limbic input.
“Competition among these different regions for conveying their interpretations of ongoing activities to the nAc appears controlled in part by DA activity in nAc, with relatively high functional DA levels there inhibiting afferent PFC input to nAc while facilitating information flow from limbic afferents into the region (Goto & Grace, 2008).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Goto & Grace, 2008
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- Premisecitation
The number of PFC projections to the nAc increases during adolescence.
“DA concentrations and the density of DA fibers projecting to PFC increase into adolescence (Benes et al, 2000), as do the number of PFC projections to the nAc (Brenhouse et al, 2008).”
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- Premisecitation
Adolescent rats are more sensitive than adults to the rewarding properties of food, palatable tastants, social peers, and novelty, as measured by conditioned place preference.
“Studies conducted in our laboratory and others likewise have found adolescent rats to be more sensitive than their adult counterparts to the rewarding properties of a variety of positively rewarding stimuli. These include food and palatable tastants (Vaidya et al, 2004; Wilmouth & Spear, 2009; Friemel et al, 2010), as well as the rewarding effects of social peers (Douglas et al, 2004) and novelty”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationnone given
Brain reward circuitry undergoes marked transformations during adolescence.
“In both basic science studies as well as human imaging work, marked transformations are seen in this reward circuitry during adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Major reward-system components that change dramatically in adolescence include DA projections to dorsal and ventral striatum, amygdala, hippocampus, PFC, and other cortical regions.
“Major components of the reward system that undergo particularly dramatic change during adolescence include projections from DA neurons deep in the base of the brain to subcortical regions including the dorsal and ventral striatum, limbic regions such as the amygdala and hippocampus, as well as the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and other cortical regions (e.g., see Berridge, 2004).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Berridge, 2004
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The ventral striatum, especially the nAc, is a critical reward-circuit node that integrates affective, contextual, and goal-directed information from the amygdala, hippocampus, and PFC.
“A particularly critical node in this reward-related neurocircuitry is the ventral striatum (especially the nAc region located within it), with the nAc thought to contribute to directing behavior towards appropriate goals via integrating affective, contextual, and goal-directed information provided by excitatory (glutaminergic) inputs from the amygdala, hippocampus and portions of the PFC,”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Grace et al, 2007
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- Premisecitation
The DA system undergoes marked developmental changes through adolescence and into adulthood.
“Marked developmental alterations are seen in the DA system through adolescence and into adulthood, as reviewed recently elsewhere (Ernst et al, 2009; Galvan, 2010; Wahlstrom et al, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Ernst et al, 2009
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- cites Galvan, 2010
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- cites Wahlstrom et al, 2010 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Recent largely behavioral animal studies suggest that wanting and liking can also be dissociated developmentally, in a way that resembles the reward anticipation versus receipt distinction in human fMRI.
“And as outlined below, recent (largely behavioral) studies in laboratory animals suggest that these two reward-related distinctions also may be dissociable developmentally, and in ways reminiscent of the reward anticipation versus reward receipt distinction that has emerged as important when characterizing differences between adolescents and adults in the fMRI literature.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Loss of feedback control over DA synthesis may make the PFC vulnerable to DA overdose.
“a loss of feedback control over DA synthesis that could contribute to the vulnerability of the PFC to DA “overdose”.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
These data support the possibility that adolescence involves both underactive and overactive reward systems at different points in reward processing.
“Such data support the possibility that adolescence may be characterized by both underactive and overactive reward systems at different points in the processing of reward-relevant stimuli, as discussed further below (see also Geier & Luna, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Geier & Luna, 2009 source
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- Interpretationcitation
A shift in DA functional balance could strongly affect competition between PFC and limbic regions for control of information in the nAc.
“Any such shift in DA functional balance could have pronounced consequences on the competition between PFC and limbic regions for control of information within the nAc, given that greater functional levels of DA activity in the nAc shifts information flow toward greater limbic and less PFC input to the nAC (see Grace et al, 2007, for review).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Grace et al, 2007
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- Interpretationcitation
An early hypothesis that adolescent DA balance favors cortical over subcortical systems and is worsened by stress did not account for inverted U-shaped DA effects in the PFC.
“An early hypothesis, though, that DA balance in adolescence is characterized by a predominance of cortical over subcortical DA systems that is further exacerbated by stress (Spear, 2000), failed to take into consideration mounting evidence for “inverted U-shaped” functional influences of DA in PFC, with too little or too much DA activity both leading to impaired PFC function (Arnsten, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Relating developmental DA changes to adolescent reward-processing alterations is not straightforward.
“Yet, it is not straightforward to relate these developmental changes to alterations in reward processing during adolescence.”
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The human imaging distinction between reward anticipation and reward receipt resembles the anticipatory wanting versus consummatory liking distinction.
“The distinction between reward anticipation vs. reward receipt in the imaging literature in humans is reminiscent of the anticipatory/”wanting” vs. consummatory/”liking” distinctions drawn by Robinson & Berridge (2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Robinson & Berridge, 2003 source
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Ventral striatum shows smaller inverted U-shaped rises and declines in DA receptor density, around 20-35%.
“Similarly timed, but more modest (20–35%) inverted U-shaped developmental rises and declines have been reported in ventral striatum (Andersen, 2002; Tarazi & Baldessarini, 2000; but see also Andersen et al, 2000).”
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In several fMRI studies, human adolescents show less ventral striatum activation than adults during cue assessment and reward anticipation.
“During cue assessment and when anticipating a reward, in a number of fMRI studies, human adolescents have been reported to show less activation in the ventral striatum than adults (Bjork et al, 2004; Geier et al, 2010; Bjork et al, 2010a).”
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Ventral striatal underactivation during reward anticipation is not observed when adolescents respond to a cue signaling an uncertain reward possibility.
“This ventral striatal underactivation, however, was not seen when adolescents were responding to a cue signaling an uncertain reward possibility (van Leijenhorst et al, 2010a,b), perhaps reflecting once again the complexities of reward processing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites van Leijenhorst et al, 2010a,b
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- Interpretationreasoning
The adolescent reduction in sign-tracking resembles the reduced adolescent response to reward-predictive cues seen in human fMRI.
“This marked alteration in sign-tracking behavior to a cue predicting an upcoming reward seen in adolescence is generally evocative of the attenuated adolescent response to reward-predictive cues seen in the human fMRI data.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Using c-fos to index activation to a food-associated cue, mid- to late-adolescent rats show greater activation in portions of the nAc than adults.
“Enhanced neural activation to food-related stimuli during adolescence was also seen using expression of the immediate early gene, c-fos to index activation to presentation of a cue associated with access to a palatable food reward, with greater c-fos activation in portions of the nAc in mid- to late-adolescent rats than in adults (Friemel et al, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Friemel et al, 2010
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Adolescent rats show greater hedonic liking responses to rewarding stimuli than adults in several circumstances, as indexed by consumption of sucrose or palatable substances and by taste reactivity.
“Using a variety of behavioral measures thought to reflect hedonic “liking”, adolescent rats as well have been found to exhibit greater “liking” responses to rewarding stimuli than adults under a number of circumstances, with adolescent rats exhibiting greater hedonic “liking” than their mature counterparts when indexed via such traditional measures as consumption of sucrose or other highly pal”
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Several groups have reported that adolescents show heightened ventral striatum activation during reward receipt compared with younger and/or older individuals.
“In contrast to the sometimes attenuated fMRI activation seen in the ventral striatum among adolescents when anticipating rewards, adolescents have been reported by a number of groups to show heightened activation of the ventral striatum during receipt of rewards relative to younger and/or older individuals (Ernst et al, 2005a; Galvan et al, 2006; Cohen et al, 2010; van Leijenhorst et al, 2010a,b)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
In laboratory animal studies using sign-tracking to index wanting, adolescents often show less anticipatory responding than adults.
“In these studies as well, there are clear indications that, at least when using tests of sign-tracking to index “wanting” (Robinson & Berridge, 2003), adolescents frequently exhibit less anticipatory responding than do adults.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Robinson & Berridge, 2003 source
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- Interpretationnone given
Substantial laboratory animal data indicate that adolescents are notably less sensitive to aversive stimuli than adults.
“There is substantial data in laboratory animals that adolescents’ sensitivity to aversive stimuli is notably attenuated when compared with adults.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Individual-difference studies show enhanced ventral striatal reward responses under some conditions linked to increased risk-related behavior.
“Studies of individual differences in ventral striatal responses to reward receipt have also revealed enhanced ventral striatal reward responses under some (but not all) conditions associated with increased risk-related behaviors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
In laboratory animals, voltammetry studies show that the type of reward can affect age differences in ventral striatal response.
“In laboratory animals, studies using voltammetry to assess subsecond, phasic DA release in the ventral striatum of rats have shown that, as in human imaging studies, the nature of the reward can influence age differences in the ventral striatal response to reward.”
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- cites Robinson et al, 2011 source
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Increased nAc activity to rewards correlates with increased risky behavior during adolescence.
“In a study of risky decision making, Galvan and colleagues (2007) observed that increased nAc activity to rewards correlated with increases in risky behavior during adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Galvan et al, 2007 source
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In rats, neuron number declines in ventral but not dorsal medial prefrontal cortex between adolescence and adulthood.
“Stereological analyses have revealed declines in the number of neurons within both of these regions between adolescence and adulthood in rats, effects studied in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (Rubinow & Juraska, 2009) and seen in ventral (but not dorsal) mPFC (Markham et al, 2007)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Markham et al, 2007 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
The extent of adolescent insensitivity to aversive outcomes depends on task conditions and the assessment method used.
“Thus, task conditions and nature of the assessment used are likely to influence the extent to which adolescents exhibit insensitivity to aversive outcomes in adolescence”
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Activation to negative feedback or aversive consequences increases with age in various cognitive control regions.
“gradual age-related increases in activation to negative feedback/aversive consequences in a variety of cognitive control regions”
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In humans and laboratory animals, amygdala volume increases during adolescence.
“In both humans and laboratory animals, the volume of frontal cortex decreases in adolescence whereas the volume of the amygdala increases (e.g., Giedd et al, 1996; Giedd, 2004; Markham et al, 2007).”
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The neurocircuitry for responding to and learning about aversive and noxious stimuli overlaps considerably with areas sensitive to emotional attributions.
“The neurocircuitry involved in responding to and learning about aversive and noxious stimuli overlaps considerably with areas sensitive to emotional attributions.”
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In the Ernst et al. study, ventral striatum recruitment correlated with positive affect to reward receipt only among adolescents.
“level of ventral striatum recruitment was found to correlate with positive affect to reward receipt only among adolescents”
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In the Ernst et al. study, adults but not adolescents showed a correlation between negative emotion and decreased amygdala activation on punishment trials.
“with adults (but not adolescents) showing a correlation between negative emotion and decreased amygdala activation on punishment (reward omission) trials”
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Neural responses to positive feedback mature earlier than neural responses to negative feedback.
“other fMRI evidence for earlier maturation of neural responses to positive than negative feedback”
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In rats, neuron number declines in the basolateral amygdala between adolescence and adulthood.
“Stereological analyses have revealed declines in the number of neurons within both of these regions between adolescence and adulthood in rats, effects studied in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (Rubinow & Juraska, 2009) and seen in ventral (but not dorsal) mPFC (Markham et al, 2007)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rubinow & Juraska, 2009
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The number of projections from the amygdala to the prefrontal cortex increases through adolescence.
“The number of projections from the amygdala to the PFC has been shown to increase through adolescence (Cunningham et al, 2008)”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Age differences in rewarding and aversive sensitivities are unlikely to reflect age differences in the capacity to express classical conditioning.
“hence are unlikely to reflect any potential age differences in capacity to express classical conditioning”
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Sensitivity to negative feedback in a gambling task is low in early-to-mid adolescence and increases gradually with age thereafter.
“sensitivity to negative feedback as reflected in avoidant behavior displayed in a gambling task has been reported to be low during early-mid adolescence, and to increase gradually with age thereafter”
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Adolescents show less pronounced amygdala activation during punishment by response omission than adults.
“adolescents were found to exhibit less pronounced activation of the amygdala during punishment (response omission) than adults, while also showing greater ventral striatal activation to rewards (Ernst et al, 2005b).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ernst et al, 2005b
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- Interpretationreasoning
This view is generally consistent with laboratory animal findings to date.
“Although harm avoidance could reflect a number of alterations other than sensitivity to aversive stimuli per se (such as the capacity to inhibit responding to avoid aversive outcomes), this view is generally consistent with the findings to date in laboratory animals.”
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Positive reward sensitivity in the same gambling task has an inverted U-shaped developmental function, peaking at about 14-21 years at higher levels than at younger or older ages.
“positive reward sensitivity in the same task that, as discussed earlier, was found to exhibit an inverted U-shaped function, peaking from approximately 14–21 years at higher levels than seen at younger or older ages”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cauffman et al, 2010 source
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Attenuated aversive sensitivities in adolescent rats emerge at higher doses of drugs that adolescents find more rewarding than adults.
“These attenuated sensitivities typically emerge at higher doses of the same drugs that adolescents find more rewarding relative to adults – e.g., alcohol, cocaine, amphetamine and nicotine”
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Adolescent rats are less sensitive than adult rats to the aversive effects of various drugs in conditioned taste aversion.
“Adolescent rats, for instance, have often been found to be less sensitive than their adult counterparts to the aversive effects of a variety of drugs when indexed via conditioned taste aversions (CTA)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Infurna & Spear, 1979
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- cites Shramm-Sapyta et al, 2006
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- cites Torres et al, 2008 source
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Adolescents show greater ventral striatal activation to rewards than adults.
“adolescents were found to exhibit less pronounced activation of the amygdala during punishment (response omission) than adults, while also showing greater ventral striatal activation to rewards (Ernst et al, 2005b).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ernst et al, 2005b
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In humans and laboratory animals, frontal cortex volume decreases during adolescence.
“In both humans and laboratory animals, the volume of frontal cortex decreases in adolescence whereas the volume of the amygdala increases (e.g., Giedd et al, 1996; Giedd, 2004; Markham et al, 2007).”
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Adolescents and adults show different neural reactions to aversive and negative-valenced stimuli and outcomes.
“In fMRI studies, adolescents and adults have also been reported to differ in their neural response to aversive and negative-valenced stimuli and outcomes”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Age differences in overall negative affect may not be caused by greater responsiveness to aversive environmental stimuli in adolescence, but by other factors.
“Yet, age differences in overall levels of negative affect may not be necessarily driven by a greater responsiveness to aversive environmental stimuli during adolescence, but rather by other factors.”
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Adolescent insensitivity to alcohol does not extend to disruption in brain plasticity and memory at higher alcohol exposure levels.
“although this insensitivity does not extend to the disruption in brain plasticity and memory that also emerges at higher alcohol exposure levels”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites White & Swartzwelder, 2005
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Adolescent rats are less sensitive than adults to the aversive properties of lithium chloride in conditioned taste aversion.
“adolescents were also found to be less sensitive to the aversive properties of the non-addictive substance, lithium chloride”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shramm-Sapyta et al, 2006
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Adolescents show more risk-taking than adults only under hot task conditions.
“adolescents were found to exhibit more risk-taking than adults only under “hot” task conditions”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Figner et al, 2009 source
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- Interpretationcitation
Insensitivity to adverse alcohol consequences may contribute to elevated drinking patterns.
“evidence supporting the suggestion that insensitivity to adverse alcohol consequences may contribute to elevated drinking patterns”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schramm-Sapyta et al, 2010 source
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Decreased sensitivity to the intoxicating effects of alcohol is a known genetic risk factor for problematic alcohol involvement.
“A decreased sensitivity to intoxicating effects of alcohol is a known genetic risk factor for problematic alcohol involvement”
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- cites Green & Grahame, 2008
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Adolescents show elevated positive taste reactivity to certain concentrations of sucrose.
“conversely exhibiting adolescent-associated elevations in positive responding to certain concentrations of sucrose”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wilmouth & Spear, 2009 source
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Adolescents show attenuated cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking relative to adults.
“adolescents likewise showed attenuated reinstatement relative to adults to cues that had previously been paired with cocaine self-administration”
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- cites Anker & Carroll, 2010
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Adolescents have been reported to show either stronger or weaker aversive fear conditioning to the training context than adults, depending on the study.
“adolescents have been varyingly reported to exhibit either stronger (Brasser & N. Spear, 2005; Esmoris et al, 2008; see also Barrett et al, 1984) or weaker (Pattwell et al, 2011) aversive (fear) conditioning to the training context than adults”
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Adolescents are particularly prone to have their decision-making influenced by exciting, emotionally charged, or stressful situations.
“adolescents seem particularly prone to have their decision-making influenced by exciting, emotionally charged and/or stressful situations”
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Adolescents consume 2-3 fold greater alcohol per episode than adults in humans and laboratory animals.
“2–3 fold greater per episode alcohol intakes seen among adolescents than adults in both humans (SAMHSA survey data, 2006) and laboratory animals”
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- cites Doremus et al, 2005 source
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Rational decision making reaches adult-typical levels by mid-adolescence.
“rational decision making reaches adult-typical levels by mid-adolescence”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steinberg, et al, 2009 source
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Only adolescents show stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking.
“although only the adolescents showed stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Anker & Carroll, 2010
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Emotional and arousing situations are particularly likely to occur during adolescence.
“Emotional and arousing situations are particularly likely to occur during adolescence”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Larson et al, 2002 source
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Among adolescent rats, those least sensitive to alcohol conditioned taste aversion show the highest alcohol consumption.
“among adolescent rats, those that were the least sensitive to alcohol CTA showed the highest levels of alcohol consumption”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schramm-Sapyta et al, 2010 source
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Attenuated aversive sensitivity during adolescence is also evident with non-drug stimuli.
“These attenuations in aversive sensitivity during adolescence are also evident with non-drug stimuli”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Shramm-Sapyta et al, 2006
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- cites Wilmouth & Spear, 2009 source
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In an older study, 8-15 year old boys given alcohol showed little behavioral or subjective intoxication compared with adults.
“Behar and colleagues (1983) reporting that “little behavioral change was noted clinically, subjectively, or on a validated objective test of intoxication…””
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Behar et al, 1983 source
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Adolescents show less negative taste reactivity to quinine than adults.
“adolescents consistently showed less negative taste reactivity to the aversive tastant quinine than adults”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wilmouth & Spear, 2009 source
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Adolescents sometimes exhibit greater overall levels of negative affect or emotions than adults.
“adolescents sometimes exhibit greater overall levels of negative affect/emotions than do adults”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Larson & Lampman-Petraitis, 1989 source
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Some negative emotionality in adolescents is intentionally sought and maintained.
“some of this negative emotionality seemingly being “intentionally sought and maintained” by adolescents”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Riediger et al, 2009 source
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Socio-emotional stimuli influence the salience of rewarding stimuli.
“socio-emotional stimuli influencing salience of rewarding stimuli”
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The presence or omission of potential or expected rewards often contributes to emotional affect.
“the presence or omission of potential or expected rewards often contributing to emotional affect”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Figner et al, 2009 source
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Elevated amygdala activity induced by emotional stimuli is associated with poorer affect-relevant performance during development.
“elevated activity in amygdala induced by emotional stimuli was associated with poorer affect-relevant performance during development”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Hare et al, 2008 source
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- cites Killgore & Yurgelun-Todd, 2007
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- Premisecitation
Positive and negative emotional states may trigger rash actions and risky behaviors in some individuals, termed positive urgency and negative urgency.
“both positive and negative emotional states may trigger “rash” actions and risky behaviors in some individuals – termed “positive urgency” and “negative urgency”, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Findings of greater adolescent amygdala activation to fearful faces are not ubiquitous.
“These findings, however, are not ubiquitous”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Greater amygdala activation correlates with poorer emotional and social capacities in 8-15 year olds.
“greater amygdala activation was correlated with poorer emotional and social capacities in a group of 8–15 year olds”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Killgore & Yurgelun-Todd, 2007
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Pubertal changes in physiological stress responses are not mirrored by differences in affective responses to stressors.
“the changes in physiological responses to stressors observed by Stroud et al (2009) during the pubertal transition “were not mirrored by differences in affective responses to the stressors””
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Stroud et al, 2009 source
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- Premisecitation
The amygdala is an important neural substrate for processing components of social information and behavior in humans and laboratory animals.
“the amygdala has been characterized as one of the important neural substrates for processing components of social information and behavior in both humans and laboratory animals”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Emotionally arousing stimuli increase activity in many brain regions involved in rapid and instinctive responses to arousing, aversive, and rewarding stimuli.
“emotionally arousing stimuli or situations increase activity in many of the same brain regions involved in rapid and instinctive behavioral responses to arousing, aversive and rewarding stimuli”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rosen & Levenson, 2009
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- Interpretationreasoning
From several perspectives, adolescents appear more likely than adults to exhibit risk-taking in emotional and arousing situations.
“from several perspectives adolescents appear more likely than adults to exhibit risk-taking in emotional and arousing situations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Most sensation-seeking and risky behaviors in adolescents occur in social situations.
“most sensation-seeking and risky behaviors in adolescents occur in social situations”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Adolescents may be particularly prone to emotional arousal partly because of unusually strong links between subcortical emotion/aversion regions and reward systems.
“Adolescents may be particularly prone to becoming emotionally aroused in part because of unusually strong links between subcortical regions critical for processing aversive, arousing and emotion-provoking stimuli (e.g., the amygdala) and systems processing rewarding stimuli such as the nAc/ventral striatum.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Mild food deprivation exacerbates extinction responding to a reward-predictive cue in adolescent rats but not adults.
“elevations in motivational/emotional arousal induced by mild food deprivation were found to exacerbate extinction responding to a cue previously predicting reward among adolescent rats, whereas no interaction of motivational status and the presence of the reward-predictive cue was seen in adults”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sturman et al, 2010 source
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- Premisecitation
Reward tasks are particularly arousing during adolescence, with marked increases in attention and shorter reaction times under rewarding conditions more than at other ages.
“tasks involving rewards appear to be particularly arousing during adolescence, with adolescents reported to show particularly marked increases in attention and shorter reaction times under rewarding than less rewarding conditions – a difference that is more prominent than at other ages”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Social isolation increases the low incidence of responding to a reward-predictive cue in adolescent relative to adult rats.
“housing animals in social isolation increasing the low incidence of responding toward the reward-predictive cue normally seen in adolescent relative to adult rats”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Anderson & Spear, unpublished observations
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
The adolescent propensity for accentuated responses to intense appetitive stimuli and attenuated responsiveness to aversive stimuli may be intensified in emotional or social situations.
“the adolescent propensity to exhibit accentuated responses to intense, appetitive stimuli but attenuated responsiveness to aversive stimuli may be further intensified in emotional or social situations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Adolescents view rewarding and aversive stimuli differently than adults.
“Adolescents view rewarding and aversive stimuli differently than do adults.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Adolescent risk taking may be tethered by biological roots reflecting transient developmental rises in reactivity and cross-reactivity within reward and emotional/affective systems.
“adolescent risk taking may be tethered by biological roots embedded in our evolutionary past that reflect, in part, transient developmental rises in reactivity (and perhaps cross-reactivity) within reward and emotional/affective systems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Self-reported reward-seeking follows an inverted U-shaped developmental function, peaking at 12-15 years of age at rates higher than at younger or older ages.
“Steinberg and colleagues (2009) found that self-reported reward-seeking demonstrated an inverted U-shaped function, peaking at 12 – 15 years of age at rates higher than seen at younger or older ages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steinberg et al, 2009 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Adolescents appear particularly prone to becoming emotionally aroused in part because of unusually strong reactivity and cross-reactivity between reward-relevant areas such as the ventral striatum/nAc and regions critical for processing arousing, emotionally-provoking stimuli such as the amygdala and insula.
“Adolescents appear particularly prone to becoming emotionally aroused in part because of unusually strong reactivity and cross-reactivity between reward-relevant areas (such as the ventral striatum/nAc) and regions critical for processing arousing, emotionally-provoking stimuli (such as the amygdala and insula).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: fMRI activation in ventral striatum and amygdala indexes reward and aversive processing, respectively.
- Interpretationreasoning
This may encourage adolescents to attach greater benefit but less cost to risky behaviors, including drug use, under these circumstances.
“thereby perhaps encouraging adolescents to attach greater benefit but less cost to risky behaviors (including drug use) under these circumstances.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Individuals tested early in adolescence (11-15 years) are more sensitive to sweet substances than when tested during late adolescence/emerging adulthood (19-25 years).
“individuals tested early in adolescence (from 11–15 years of age) were found to be more sensitive to sweet substances than when tested during late adolescence/emerging adulthood (19–25 years) (Desor & Beauchamp, 1987).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Desor & Beauchamp, 1987 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Adolescent-typical increases in risk-taking, exploratory drug use, and other age-related behaviors are influenced in part by biology that has persisted from our evolutionary past.
“Such an evolutionary view suggests that adolescent-typical increases in risk-taking, exploratory drug use and other age-related behaviors are influenced in part by biology persisting from our evolutionary past.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Marked developmental alterations occur in the DA system through adolescence and into adulthood.
“Marked developmental alterations are seen in the DA system through adolescence and into adulthood, as reviewed recently elsewhere (Ernst et al, 2009; Galvan, 2010; Wahlstrom et al, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Ernst et al, 2009
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- cites Galvan, 2010
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- cites Wahlstrom et al, 2010 source
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- Rests on an assumption: The DA system alterations observed in animals are relevant to human adolescent reward processing.
- Premisecitation
Adolescent rats are more sensitive than adults to the rewarding properties of a variety of positively rewarding stimuli, including food and palatable tastants, social peers, and novelty.
“adolescent rats to be more sensitive than their adult counterparts to the rewarding properties of a variety of positively rewarding stimuli. These include food and palatable tastants (Vaidya et al, 2004; Wilmouth & Spear, 2009; Friemel et al, 2010), as well as the rewarding effects of social peers (Douglas et al, 2004) and novelty (Douglas et al, 2003)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Vaidya et al, 2004 source
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- cites Wilmouth & Spear, 2009 source
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- cites Friemel et al, 2010
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- Rests on an assumption: Findings from laboratory animal studies can be generalized to human adolescents.
- Premisecitation
Sensation seeking shows an inverted U-shaped developmental function peaking around 17-18 years of age.
“an inverted U-shaped developmental function peaking during adolescence was also reported for sensation seeking, with peak levels reached at around 17–18 years of age”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Romer et al, 2010 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Adolescents appear generally less sensitive than adults to aversive stimuli, including the aversive properties of rewarding drugs.
“Adolescents, conversely, appear generally less sensitive to aversive stimuli – including the aversive properties of rewarding drugs -- than do adults”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Findings from laboratory animal studies can be generalized to human adolescents.
- Premisecitation
DA firing rates rise during adolescence in rats to peak late in adolescence prior to declining thereafter.
“DA firing rates have been reported to rise during adolescence in rats to peak late in adolescence prior to declining thereafter (McCutcheon & Marinelli, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McCutcheon & Marinelli, 2009
Not checked in the free run.
- Rests on an assumption: The DA system alterations observed in animals are relevant to human adolescent reward processing.
- Interpretationreasoning
Task conditions and the nature of assessment likely influence the extent to which adolescents show insensitivity to aversive outcomes.
“Thus, task conditions and nature of the assessment used are likely to influence the extent to which adolescents exhibit insensitivity to aversive outcomes in adolescence”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Adolescents show heightened ventral striatum activation during receipt of rewards relative to younger and/or older individuals.
“adolescents have been reported by a number of groups to show heightened activation of the ventral striatum during receipt of rewards relative to younger and/or older individuals (Ernst et al, 2005a; Galvan et al, 2006; Cohen et al, 2010; van Leijenhorst et al, 2010a,b)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Ernst et al, 2005a
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- cites Galvan et al, 2006 source
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- cites Cohen et al, 2010 source
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- Rests on an assumption: fMRI activation in ventral striatum and amygdala indexes reward and aversive processing, respectively.
- Interpretationnone given
Substantial data in laboratory animals indicate that adolescents' sensitivity to aversive stimuli is notably attenuated compared with adults.
“There is substantial data in laboratory animals that adolescents’ sensitivity to aversive stimuli is notably attenuated when compared with adults.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Findings from laboratory animal studies can be generalized to human adolescents.
- Interpretationreasoning
Developmental insensitivity to undesired alcohol effects could contribute to the 2-3 fold greater per episode alcohol intakes seen among adolescents than adults in humans and laboratory animals.
“A developmental insensitivity to undesired alcohol effects likely serving as negative feedback cues to moderate intake could contribute to the 2–3 fold greater per episode alcohol intakes seen among adolescents than adults in both humans (SAMHSA survey data, 2006) and laboratory animals (e.g., Doremus et al, 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites SAMHSA survey data, 2006
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- cites Doremus et al, 2005 source
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- Premisecitation
Sensitivity to negative feedback in a gambling task is low during early-mid adolescence and increases gradually with age thereafter.
“sensitivity to negative feedback as reflected in avoidant behavior displayed in a gambling task has been reported to be low during early-mid adolescence, and to increase gradually with age thereafter (see Steinberg, 2008; Cauffman et al, 2010)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
These findings are consistent with a relatively delayed development of a harm-avoidant system.
“data consistent with their notion of a relatively delayed development of a “harm-avoidant” system (Ernst et al, 2005a).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ernst et al, 2005a
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- Premisecitation
Adolescent rats are often less sensitive than adult rats to aversive effects of various drugs as indexed by conditioned taste aversions.
“Adolescent rats, for instance, have often been found to be less sensitive than their adult counterparts to the aversive effects of a variety of drugs when indexed via conditioned taste aversions (CTA)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Infurna & Spear, 1979
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- cites Shramm-Sapyta et al, 2006, 2010
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- cites Torres et al, 2008 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
The converse age-related sensitivities to rewarding and aversive stimuli are unlikely to reflect age differences in capacity to express classical conditioning.
“Many of these converse age-related sensitivities to rewarding and aversive stimuli have been revealed using similar place or taste conditioning procedures (sometimes even within the same study – e.g., see Torres et al, 2008), and hence are unlikely to reflect any potential age differences in capacity to express classical conditioning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Torres et al, 2008 source
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- Premisecitation
In fMRI studies, adolescents and adults differ in neural response to aversive and negative-valenced stimuli and outcomes.
“In fMRI studies, adolescents and adults have also been reported to differ in their neural response to aversive and negative-valenced stimuli and outcomes”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Positive reward sensitivity in the same task shows an inverted U-shaped function, peaking from about 14-21 years at higher levels than younger or older ages.
“the ontogeny of positive reward sensitivity in the same task that, as discussed earlier, was found to exhibit an inverted U-shaped function, peaking from approximately 14–21 years at higher levels than seen at younger or older ages (Cauffman et al, 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cauffman et al, 2010 source
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- Premisecitation
In human fMRI studies, adolescents show less ventral striatum activation than adults during reward anticipation.
“During cue assessment and when anticipating a reward, in a number of fMRI studies, human adolescents have been reported to show less activation in the ventral striatum than adults (Bjork et al, 2004; Geier et al, 2010; Bjork et al, 2010a).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Bjork et al, 2004 source
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- cites Geier et al, 2010 source
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- cites Bjork et al, 2010a
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- Rests on an assumption: fMRI activation in ventral striatum and amygdala indexes reward and aversive processing, respectively.
- Premisecitation
These attenuated sensitivities typically emerge at higher doses of the same drugs that adolescents find more rewarding relative to adults.
“These attenuated sensitivities typically emerge at higher doses of the same drugs that adolescents find more rewarding relative to adults – e.g., alcohol, cocaine, amphetamine and nicotine, as reviewed earlier.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In rats, stereological analyses show declines in neuron number in the basolateral amygdala and ventral mPFC between adolescence and adulthood.
“Stereological analyses have revealed declines in the number of neurons within both of these regions between adolescence and adulthood in rats, effects studied in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (Rubinow & Juraska, 2009) and seen in ventral (but not dorsal) mPFC (Markham et al, 2007)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Rubinow & Juraska, 2009
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- cites Markham et al, 2007 source
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- Premisecitation
Adolescent rats exhibit greater hedonic liking responses to rewarding stimuli than adults under a number of circumstances, including consumption of sucrose or other highly palatable substances and taste reactivity to sucrose.
“adolescent rats as well have been found to exhibit greater “liking” responses to rewarding stimuli than adults under a number of circumstances, with adolescent rats exhibiting greater hedonic “liking” than their mature counterparts when indexed via such traditional measures as consumption of sucrose or other highly palatable substances (e.g., Vaidya et al, 2004; Wilmouth & Spear, 2009; Friemel et”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Vaidya et al, 2004 source
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- cites Wilmouth & Spear, 2009 source
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- cites Friemel et al, 2010
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- Rests on an assumption: Findings from laboratory animal studies can be generalized to human adolescents.
- Rests on an assumption: Behavioral measures such as sign-tracking, goal-tracking, and taste reactivity validly index anticipatory wanting and consummatory liking in rats.
- Premisecitation
In the Columbia Card Task, adolescents exhibit more risk-taking than adults only under hot task conditions.
“adolescents were found to exhibit more risk-taking than adults only under “hot” task conditions (Figner et al, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Figner et al, 2009 source
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- Premisecitation
Greater amygdala activation correlated with poorer emotional and social capacities in 8-15 year olds.
“greater amygdala activation was correlated with poorer emotional and social capacities in a group of 8–15 year olds (Killgore & Yurgelun-Todd, 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Killgore & Yurgelun-Todd, 2007
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Decreased sensitivity to intoxicating effects of alcohol is a known genetic risk factor for problematic alcohol involvement.
“A decreased sensitivity to intoxicating effects of alcohol is a known genetic risk factor for problematic alcohol involvement (Schuckit, 1994; Green & Grahame, 2008)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Schuckit, 1994 source
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- cites Green & Grahame, 2008
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- Premisecitation
The incidence of urgency has been suggested to spike in adolescence.
“the incidence of urgency have been suggested to spike in adolescence, with “the normative adolescent experience …characterized by developmentally heightened levels of positive and negative urgency” (Cyders & Smith, 2008, p.22).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cyders & Smith, 2008 source
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- Premisecitation
Adolescents sometimes exhibit greater overall negative affect or emotions than adults.
“adolescents sometimes exhibit greater overall levels of negative affect/emotions than do adults (e.g., see Larson & Lampman-Petraitis, 1989)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Larson & Lampman-Petraitis, 1989 source
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- Premisecitation
Some negative emotionality in adolescents is intentionally sought and maintained, perhaps serving an adaptive function.
“with some of this negative emotionality seemingly being “intentionally sought and maintained” by adolescents (Riediger et al, 2009, p.1533), perhaps to help adolescents disengage from unattainable goals and thereby serving a potential adaptive function (Wrosch & Miller, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Riediger et al, 2009 source
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- cites Wrosch & Miller, 2009
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- Interpretationcitation
Elevated amygdala activity induced by emotional stimuli was associated with poorer affect-relevant performance during development, consistent with hot cognitions.
“elevated activity in amygdala induced by emotional stimuli was associated with poorer affect-relevant performance during development – findings consistent with the notion of “hot cognitions”.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In children, greater cardiac reactivity to a needle puncture tended to be associated with less behavioral evidence of negative affect and distress.
“children that showed greater cardiac reactivity to a needle puncture for blood draw even tending to exhibit less behavioral evidence of negative affect and emotional distress to the procedure (Quas et al, 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Quas et al, 2000 source
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- Premisecitation
In classical conditioning, adolescents have been reported to show either stronger or weaker aversive fear conditioning to the training context than adults.
“adolescents have been varyingly reported to exhibit either stronger (Brasser & N. Spear, 2005; Esmoris et al, 2008; see also Barrett et al, 1984) or weaker (Pattwell et al, 2011) aversive (fear) conditioning to the training context than adults”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Among adolescent rats, those least sensitive to alcohol CTA showed the highest alcohol consumption.
“among adolescent rats, those that were the least sensitive to alcohol CTA showed the highest levels of alcohol consumption”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schramm-Sapyta et al, 2010 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationcitation
Adolescents are particularly prone to decision-making influenced by exciting, emotionally charged, or stressful situations (hot cognitions).
“adolescents seem particularly prone to have their decision-making influenced by exciting, emotionally charged and/or stressful situations (so called “hot cognitions” – e.g., Arnsten, 1998; Dahl, 2001; Figner et al, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Collectively, alcohol insensitivities may contribute to elevated alcohol use during adolescence that places vulnerable youth on a trajectory toward problematic use and dependence.
“Collectively these alcohol insensitivities may potentially contribute to a pattern of elevated alcohol use during adolescence that places vulnerable youth on a trajectory toward problematic use and dependence (Spear & Varlinskaya, 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Spear & Varlinskaya, 2005
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- Premisecitation
These findings are not ubiquitous.
“These findings, however, are not ubiquitous (see Pine et al, 2001; Thomas et al, 2001b; McClure et al, 2004; Deeley et al, 2008)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Adolescents appear more likely than adults to exhibit risk-taking in emotional and arousing situations.
“from several perspectives adolescents appear more likely than adults to exhibit risk-taking in emotional and arousing situations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Adolescents sometimes differ notably from adults in responding to cues and contexts predicting aversive outcomes.
“Thus, adolescents sometimes differ notably from adults in their responding to cues and contexts predicting aversive outcomes”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Adolescent risk taking may be tethered by biological roots embedded in evolutionary past reflecting transient developmental rises in reactivity and cross-reactivity within reward and emotional/affective systems.
“adolescent risk taking may be tethered by biological roots embedded in our evolutionary past that reflect, in part, transient developmental rises in reactivity (and perhaps cross-reactivity) within reward and emotional/affective systems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Adolescent affective systems may be particularly labile to activation by rewarding stimuli.
“adolescent affective systems may be particularly labile to activation by rewarding stimuli (e.g., see Galvan et al, 2006, 2007; Figner et al, 2009), with “a greater behavioural impact of reward on motivational salience” during adolescence than in adulthood (Smith et al, 2011, p.30 of accepted MS).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Adolescents may be particularly prone to emotional arousal due to unusually strong links between subcortical regions processing aversive/emotional stimuli and reward systems.
“Adolescents may be particularly prone to becoming emotionally aroused in part because of unusually strong links between subcortical regions critical for processing aversive, arousing and emotion-provoking stimuli (e.g., the amygdala) and systems processing rewarding stimuli such as the nAc/ventral striatum.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The adolescent propensity to exhibit accentuated responses to intense appetitive stimuli but attenuated responsiveness to aversive stimuli may be further intensified in emotional or social situations.
“the adolescent propensity to exhibit accentuated responses to intense, appetitive stimuli but attenuated responsiveness to aversive stimuli may be further intensified in emotional or social situations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Isolate housing increased the low incidence of responding toward a reward-predictive cue in adolescent rats relative to adults.
“Isolate housing likewise was found to differentially impact adolescents and adults in a sign-tracking task, with housing animals in social isolation increasing the low incidence of responding toward the reward-predictive cue normally seen in adolescent relative to adult rats (Anderson & Spear, unpublished observations).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Anderson & Spear, unpublished observations
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- Interpretationcitation
Emotional/affect and reward systems may be linked because under heightened emotional circumstances, adolescent sensitivity to positively valenced rewards or reward-predictive cues may become more pronounced.
“it is also possible that emotional/affect and reward systems may be linked because, under heightened emotional circumstances, adolescent sensitivity to positively valenced rewards or cues predicting those rewards may become even more pronounced.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Stroud et al. (2009) found that changes in physiological responses to stressors during puberty were not mirrored by differences in affective responses.
“the changes in physiological responses to stressors observed by Stroud et al (2009) during the pubertal transition “were not mirrored by differences in affective responses to the stressors” (p.62).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Stroud et al, 2009 source
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- May combine two claims. 122
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationAdolescent and adult rats do not differ in goal-tracking, suggesting the sign-tracking reduction is not simply due to difficulty learning that the cue predicts reward.
“The attenuation in sign-tracking during adolescence does not appear related in any simple manner to difficulties learning that the cue predicts reward, in that adolescents and adults did not differ in goal-tracking behavior (i.e., approaching during cue presentation the location where the upcoming reward will be delivered)(Anderson & Spear, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Anderson & Spear, 2011
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAdolescence is marked by increased consumption of palatable substances and an associated growth spurt.
“The adolescent period is also characterized by increases in consumption of palatable substances (not withstanding the dieting often seen in female youth in cultures where the media promotes thinness), along with an associated growth spurt (Post & Kemper, 1993).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Post & Kemper, 1993
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPeople typically first try alcohol and other drugs during adolescence, and some exploratory alcohol use is normative by about age 14 in the United States.
“It is also during adolescence that individuals typically first initiate use of alcohol and other drugs, with some exploratory use of alcohol being normative by 14 years or so in the United States (Johnston et al, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Johnston et al, 2009
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PremisecitationAge-associated behavioral commonalities are thought to have been maintained over evolutionary history because of their adaptive value, with adolescent peer focus and risk-taking proposed to aid the transition to maturity and encourage emigration to avoid inbreeding depression.
“Such age-associated behavioral commonalities are thought to have been maintained over evolutionary history because of their overall adaptive significance, with for instance the adolescent focus on peer-directed social behavior and elevations in risk-taking postulated to facilitate the transition to maturity as well as to encourage emigration as a strategy for avoiding inbreeding depression (see”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Steinberg & Belsky, 1996
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- cites Spear, 2000
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PremisecitationDuring adolescence, social orientation shifts toward peers, with marked increases in the importance of and time spent in peer interaction.
“Their social orientation shifts, with marked elevations in the importance of and time spent interacting socially with peers (e.g., Hartup & Stevens; 1997; Brown, 2004).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Hartup & Stevens; 1997
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- cites Brown, 2004
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenNearly all theories of adolescent development agree that frontal cognitive control regions such as the PFC mature late.
“Essentially all theories of adolescent development concur on the importance of delayed maturation of frontal cognitive control regions such as the PFC.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThese age-related tendencies may increase adolescent risk taking, especially in social and exciting contexts, and may lead adolescents to see greater benefit and less cost in risky behaviors such as alcohol and drug use than people of other ages do.
“Such age-related propensities may promote adolescent risk taking, especially in social and exciting contexts, and contribute to adolescent-typical propensities to attach greater benefit and less cost to risky behaviors such as alcohol and drug use than individuals at other ages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAdolescent rats show temporary increases in peer-directed social interaction, novelty-seeking/risk taking, and consummatory behavior, and voluntarily drink 2-3 times more ethanol than adults.
“For instance, even in a simple rodent model, adolescent rats exhibit transient age-related increases in peer-directed social interactions, novelty-seeking/risk taking, and consummatory behaviors, and voluntarily consume 2–3 fold more ethanol than their adult counterparts (see Spear, 2000, 2007; Doremus et al, 2005, for review).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Spear, 2000
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- cites Spear, 2007
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- cites Doremus et al, 2005
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenAn evolutionary perspective suggests that adolescent-typical increases in risk-taking and exploratory drug use are partly influenced by biology retained from the evolutionary past.
“Such an evolutionary view suggests that adolescent-typical increases in risk-taking, exploratory drug use and other age-related behaviors are influenced in part by biology persisting from our evolutionary past.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenAdolescents sometimes show heightened reward reactivity, while their sensitivity to aversive stimuli is often reduced.
“Indications of sometimes heightened reward reactivity during adolescence are contrasted with frequent attenuations in adolescent sensitivity to aversive stimuli.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationEnhanced responsivity to positive rewards has been reported in adolescence, with reward sensitivity often peaking during adolescence above earlier and later levels.
“Signs of enhanced responsivity to positive rewards have been reported during adolescence, with sensitivity to rewards often peaking in adolescence at rates higher than that earlier and later.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn rats, DA firing rates increase during adolescence, peak late in adolescence, and then decline.
“For instance, DA firing rates have been reported to rise during adolescence in rats to peak late in adolescence prior to declining thereafter (McCutcheon & Marinelli, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McCutcheon & Marinelli, 2009
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PremisecitationIn a gambling task, reward-seeking rises to a peak beginning at 14-15 years and declines after age 21.
“Using a gambling task involving advantageous and disadvantageous decks of cards where reward-seeking was indexed via sensitivity to the positive feedback provided by advantageous decks, reward-seeking was reported to rise to peak beginning at 14–15 years of age, with declines in this measure seen after 21 years (Cauffman et al, 2010).”
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PremisecitationAdolescent rats are more sensitive than adults both to alcohol's rewarding effects and to alcohol's facilitation of social behavior.
“Adolescent rats are not only more sensitive than adults to the rewarding effects of alcohol, but also to the facilitation of social behavior by alcohol, perhaps enhancing alcohol’s rewarding properties further in social contexts (e.g., Varlinskaya & Spear, 2002).”
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InterpretationcitationThere is growing agreement that adolescence can involve hyper-reactive DA/nAc reward-related systems in some circumstances, along with evidence for hyporeactivity in these systems in other circumstances.
“There is also emerging consensus that under some circumstances adolescence appears to be characterized by hyper-reactive DA/nAc reward-related systems (see Galvan, 2010; Wahlstrom et al, 2010, for excellent reviews), along with compelling evidence for adolescent hyporeactivity in these systems under certain circumstances as well (e.g., Geier & Luna, 2009; Bjork et al, 2010a – reviewed in Doremus-F”
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- cites Wahlstrom et al, 2010
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- cites Geier & Luna, 2009
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PremisecitationDA concentrations and the density of DA fibers projecting to the PFC increase into adolescence.
“DA concentrations and the density of DA fibers projecting to PFC increase into adolescence (Benes et al, 2000), as do the number of PFC projections to the nAc (Brenhouse et al, 2008).”
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InterpretationreasoningAdolescents differ markedly from adults in brain reward neurocircuitry and in how they process and respond to rewarding and aversive stimuli.
“Given these notable differences in how adolescents respond behaviorally to rewarding stimuli, it is not surprising that adolescents differ notably from adults in their brain reward neurocircuitry and how they process and respond to rewarding and aversive stimuli.”
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PremisecitationAdolescent animals are often more sensitive than adults to the rewarding effects of drugs such as cocaine, nicotine, and alcohol, though age differences are not always found.
“Similar studies have often found adolescent animals to also be more sensitive than their adult counterparts to the rewarding consequences of a variety of drugs, including cocaine (e.g., Brenhouse & Andersen, 2008; Brenhouse et al, 2008), nicotine (e.g., Shram et al, 2006; Torres et al, 2008), and alcohol (e.g., Pautassi et al, 2008), although such age differences are not always apparent (Aberg et”
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- cites Shram et al, 2006
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- cites Pautassi et al, 2008
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PremisecitationDA receptor density peaks in dorsal striatum early in adolescence in humans and laboratory animals, then one-third to almost 50% of these receptors are lost by young adulthood.
“The density of DA receptor sites peaks in dorsal striatum early in adolescence in humans and laboratory animals, followed by losses of one-third to almost 50% of these receptors by young adulthood (Seeman et al, 1987; Tarazi & Baldessarini, 2000; Teicher et al, 2003).”
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- cites Tarazi & Baldessarini, 2000
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- cites Teicher et al, 2003
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PremisecitationDA receptor density in the PFC peaks only in late adolescence, and pruning of these receptors does not occur until young adulthood.
“In contrast, DA receptor density in PFC does not peak until late adolescence, with pruning of these receptor populations not occurring until young adulthood (Andersen et al, 2000; Weickert et al, 2007).”
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- cites Weickert et al, 2007
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InterpretationcitationIn gambling and reward-receipt tasks, the strongest evidence is greater ventral striatum activation in adolescents than adults during reward receipt, with some evidence for reduced activation during reward anticipation.
“In gambling tasks or other reward receipt situations, although the data are mixed, arguably the strongest evidence is for greater ventral striatum activation among adolescents than adults in response to reward receipt (see Galvan, 2010, for review), with some evidence as well for attenuated ventral striatum activation during reward anticipation (e.g., see Bjork et al, 2010a).”
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- cites Bjork et al, 2010a
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PremisecitationPeople with ADHD or a family history of alcoholism show less ventral striatum activation than controls during reward anticipation, and the degree of hypoactivation correlates with impulsivity.
“Yet, individuals with attentional-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Scheres et al, 2007; Ströhle et al, 2008) or a family history of alcoholism (Andrews et al, 2010) likewise exhibit less activation in ventral striatum than control subjects during reward anticipation, with the magnitude of this hypoactivation correlated with impulsivity ratings in both cases.”
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- cites Ströhle et al, 2008
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- cites Andrews et al, 2010
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PremisecitationIn an antisaccade task, adolescents show reduced ventral striatal activation during cue assessment, overactivity during response preparation, and no age differences during reward feedback.
“For instance, in an antisaccade visual task requiring inhibition for successful performance, adolescents were found to show attenuated ventral striatal activation relative to adults during cue assessment, overactivity during response preparation, with no age differences evident during reward feedback (Geier et al, 2010).”
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PremisecitationAccording to Robinson and Berridge, wanting reflects incentive salience or desire for a reward and can sensitize with repeated drug exposure, while liking reflects the hedonic affective response to rewarding stimuli.
“According to this view, “wanting” is thought to reflect incentive salience or desire for the reward (and in the case of addictive drugs, is prone to sensitize with repeated exposures) whereas “liking” reflects the hedonic, affective reaction to rewarding stimuli.”
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PremisecitationWanting and liking often operate similarly in intact adults, but basic-science evidence indicates they are mediated by different neural systems and can be experimentally dissociated.
“Although these two reward components often function similarly in intact adults, Robinson and Berridge (2003) provide converging evidence largely from basic science studies that these systems are mediated via different neural systems and can be dissociated experimentally.”
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PremisecitationElevated tonic DA levels affect how easily the DA system can be phasically activated, and the measure used to index DA function can shape conclusions about age-related changes.
“For instance, elevated baseline (tonic) levels of DA tone influence how easily the DA system can be acutely activated (phasic activity) (see Goto et al, 2007), and hence the measure chosen to index DA function (e.g., assessment of extracellular, tonic levels of DA via microdialysis vs. estimates of phasic DA release indexed via voltammetry [see Robinson et al, 2011]) can drive the nature of the”
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- cites Robinson et al, 2011
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InterpretationcitationHuman fMRI evidence indicates that the adolescent ventral striatum processes rewarding stimuli differently from adults, with both increases and decreases in activity at different reward-processing stages.
“Evidence is mounting in human fMRI studies that the ventral striatum of the adolescent processes rewarding stimuli differently than do adults, with compelling signs, however, for both adolescent-associated accentuations as well as attenuations in activity in this region during different stages of reward-related processing (e.g., see Bjork et al, 2010a; Geier et al, 2010).”
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- cites Geier et al, 2010
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PremisecitationIn rats, PFC DA synthesis is under negative feedback regulation early in life, and this regulation disappears during adolescence.
“In work conducted in rats, DA synthesis in PFC was found to be subject to negative feedback regulation early in life, with this synthesis regulation disappearing during adolescence (e.g., Andersen et al, 1997; Dumont et al, 2004) -- a loss of feedback control over DA synthesis that could contribute to the vulnerability of the PFC to DA “overdose”.”
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- cites Dumont et al, 2004
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InterpretationcitationDA and other reward-relevant neurocircuitry undergo substantial adolescent changes, including losses of up to half of DA receptors in some regions and 2-7 fold changes in regional DA tone.
“From such studies, it is abundantly clear that DA and other reward-relevant neurocircuitry undergo substantive alterations during adolescence, with not only the losses of up to 50% of the DA receptors in some reward-relevant regions as discussed above, but also marked (2–7 fold) changes in regional levels of DA activity (i.e., “DA tone” – see Andersen, 2002).”
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PremisecitationCannabinoid receptors peak during adolescence in dorsal striatum and limbic forebrain and then decline.
“Inverted U-shaped adolescent peaks and later declines are also evident in other reward-critical receptor systems, with for instance cannabinoid receptors peaking during adolescence in dorsal striatum and limbic forebrain and declining thereafter (Rodriguez de Fonseca et al, 1993).”
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InterpretationcitationDevelopmental DA changes often differ by region and may reflect ontogenetic shifts in the balance of DA activity across brain areas.
“Observed developmental changes often vary regionally and could reflect ontogenetic shifts in the balance of DA activity across brain areas, finding consistent with other evidence for complementarity in DA activity across brain regions (Zigmond et al., 1998).”
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InterpretationcitationBecause DA projections to the PFC are more stressor-sensitive than subcortical terminals, adolescent PFC DA overdose would be worsened by stressors, shifting balance toward greater subcortical DA influence under stress or arousal.
“Given the greater stressor sensitivity of the DA projections to PFC than to subcortical terminal regions (e.g., Dunn, 1988), any adolescent DA “overdose” in PFC would seemingly be further exacerbated by stressors, shifting the functional balance toward even greater subcortical DA influences under stressful and arousing conditions (Arnsten, 2009).”
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- cites Arnsten, 2009
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InterpretationreasoningThe adolescent sign-tracking reduction may reflect broader age-related predispositions in processing consequence-predictive cues and contexts, perhaps involving developmental changes in amygdala/PFC regions.
“A perhaps more likely possibility is that the adolescent attenuation in sign-tracking reflects broader age-associated predispositions in the processing of consequence-predictive cues and contexts, perhaps driven in part by ontogenetic alterations in amygdala/PFC regions and their interactions, as discussed in Section 2.3.”
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PremisecitationYoung smokers show reduced ventral striatal responses during reward anticipation compared with non-smokers, and the response magnitude is negatively correlated with smoking frequency.
“Similar attenuations in ventral striatal responses have been reported during reward anticipation among young smokers relative to age-matched non-smokers, with the magnitude of this ventral striatal response negatively correlated with smoking frequency (Peters et al, 2011).”
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PremisecitationExternalizing disorder is linked to changes in reward receipt but not reward anticipation.
“Yet, other types of individual differences linked to increases in risk taking or impulsiveness (e.g., externalizing disorder, Bjork et al, 2010b) are associated with alterations in reward receipt but not reward anticipation (see Section 1.2.2).”
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PremisecitationEnhanced liking is not universal; adolescent rats emit significantly fewer 50 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations, though they show more social behavior, during social interactions.
“A major exception in this case is in work using 50 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) to index positive affect in rats (Blanchard et al, 1993; Burgdorf et al, 2000), where adolescent rats were found to produce significantly fewer USVs (but more social behavior) during social interactions (Willey et al, 2009).”
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PremisecitationAdolescent rats show reduced DA transients in the ventral striatum to novel sensory stimuli compared with adults, but greater DA release to highly palatable food.
“In response to a variety of types of novel sensory (visual, olfactory and auditory) stimuli, adolescent rats were found to exhibit attenuated DA transients in the ventral striatum when compared with adults, whereas they exhibited greater DA release to a highly palatable food reward (Ung et al, 2010; Robinson et al, 2011).”
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- cites Robinson et al, 2011
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Interpretationnone givenOverall, depending on the rewarding stimulus and testing conditions, adolescents often show elevated hedonic liking responses to reward receipt relative to adults, while sometimes showing reduced anticipatory wanting responses to reward-predictive cues.
“The overall picture that emerges in these studies of both human and rat adolescents is that depending on the specifics of the rewarding stimulus and other aspects of the testing circumstances, adolescents often show elevated hedonic, “liking” responses to reward receipt relative to adults, while conversely sometimes showing attenuated anticipatory/”wanting” responses to cues predicting those”
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Interpretationnone givenContext likely matters for adolescent reward responses, including whether reward magnitude varies across trials, the nature and timing of feedback, and whether outcomes include losses or punishment.
“Context is also likely important, including whether reward magnitude is varied across trials, the nature and timing of feedback, and whether possible outcomes also include losses or punishment.”
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PremisecitationErnst and colleagues' triadic model proposed that adolescents have a less active amygdala harm-avoidant system than adults, based partly on fMRI evidence of reduced amygdala responses to aversive outcomes and negative-valenced stimuli.
“On the one hand, based in part on the results of fMRI imaging data showing attenuated amygdala responses to aversive outcomes and negative-valenced stimuli during adolescence, Ernst and colleagues (2005a) suggested in their triadic model that adolescents have a less active amygdala “harm avoidant” system than adults.”
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InterpretationcitationThe database is not yet sufficient to identify what causes variability in adolescent ventral striatal reward responses; likely contributors include processing phase, baseline, task, response requirements, and reward type, magnitude, and frequency.
“While there is not a sufficient database of studies as yet to disentangle potential contributors to these variable findings, likely suspects include differences across studies in the processing phase(s) during which scans were collected, the nature of the baseline used as well as type of task and response required (if any), and the type, magnitude and frequency of reward (see Galvan, 2010 for an”
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Premisenone givenHuman adolescent data on aversive sensitivity are more limited and interpretations differ.
“As we shall see, the data in human adolescents are more limited and the interpretations vary.”
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PremisecitationEnhanced adolescent ventral striatal responses to reward receipt are not universal; some groups find no evidence, and there is evidence for a post-pubertal decline in striatal reactivity to reward outcome.
“Such findings are clearly not ubiquitous, however, with some groups finding no evidence of enhanced ventral striatal responses to receipt of rewards during adolescence (Bjork et al, 2004, 2010a; Holm et al, 2009; Forbes et al, 2010), along with evidence for a post-pubertal decline in striatal reactivity to reward outcome (Forbes et al, 2010).”
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- cites Holm et al, 2009
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- cites Forbes et al, 2010
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PremisecitationPeople high on the Behavioral Activation Scale and people with externalizing disorders show increased ventral striatal activation to reward receipt.
“Likewise, individuals high on the Behavioral Activation Scale (BAS) (Simon et al, 2009) as well as individuals with externalizing disorders (Bjork et al, 2010b) also were found to exhibit increases in ventral striatal activation to reward receipt than those without these characteristics.”
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- cites Bjork et al, 2010b
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PremisecitationSign-tracking depends on the amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex, and nAc DA.
“Indeed, sign tracking is an amygdala-, anterior cingulate cortex- and nAc DA-dependent behavior Everitt et al, 1999).”
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InterpretationcitationThe relationship between ventral striatal activation and reward magnitude may be exaggerated in adolescence, with weaker responses to small rewards but stronger or more sustained responses to larger rewards than adults.
“Indeed, there is evidence to suggest that the relationship between ventral striatal activation and reward magnitude may be exaggerated during adolescence, with human adolescents tending to show weaker responses in the ventral striatum to small rewards (Galvan et al, 2006), but showing more dramatic signal increases (Galvan et al, 2006) or more sustained activation (Delgado et al, 2000) in ventral”
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- cites Delgado et al, 2000
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InterpretationcitationIncreases in negative affect across early adolescence could reflect greater exposure to stressors during this transition rather than increased sensitivity to aversive stimuli and punishment.
“For instance, given associations between life stress and affect (e.g., Larson et al, 2002), increases in negative affect across early adolescence could also reflect greater exposure to stressors during this developmental transition (see Spear, 2000, for discussion) rather than an increased sensitivity to aversive stimuli and punishment.”
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- cites Spear, 2000
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PremisecitationPrefrontal cortex projections to the basal amygdala decline through adolescence, with about half of mPFC neurons projecting there retracting axons between late adolescence and adulthood.
“developmental declines in PFC projections to the amygdala have been reported, with “approximately half of the neurons projecting to the basal amygdala from the mPFC fully retract(ing) their axons from the basal amygdala between late adolescence and adulthood” (Cressman et al, 2010, p.2705).”
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Premisenone givenAversive stimuli and punishment are among the stimuli often used to induce negative emotions in experimental studies.
“Indeed, aversive stimuli and punishment are among the stimuli/circumstances/conditions often used to promote negative emotions in experimental studies.”
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PremisecitationCritical areas for processing aversive and emotional stimuli include the amygdala, insula, anterior cingulate cortex, portions of the PFC, brainstem regions such as the periaqueductal gray and locus coeruleus, the midbrain, and certain hypothalamic regions.
“Critical areas involved in processing aversive and emotional stimuli and orchestrating appropriate short and/or long-term behavioral and physiological adaptations to these stimuli include forebrain regions such as the amygdala, insula, anterior cingulate cortex and portions of the PFC, along with projections throughout the neural axis, including brainstem regions such as the periaqueductal gray”
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- cites Büchel et al, 1998
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- cites Nitschke et al, 2006
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PremisecitationThe prefrontal cortex and amygdala undergo marked neuroanatomical changes during adolescence.
“Several of these regions (e.g., PFC and amygdala) have been the subject of careful ontogenetic study and found to undergo marked neuroanatomical changes during adolescence.”
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PremisecitationSomerville and colleagues concluded that human adolescents show exaggerated responses to both positive and negative environmental cues relative to children and adults.
“On the other hand, drawing on data such as declines in average affect from early-to-mid adolescence (approx. 11–16 yrs) (e.g., Larson et al, 2002) and imaging data showing exaggerated amygdala responses to faces displaying negative emotional states during adolescence (e.g., Monk et al, 2003; Guyer et al, 2008), Somerville and colleagues (2010) concluded that human adolescents show “exaggerated”
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- Rests on an assumption: fMRI activation in ventral striatum and amygdala indexes reward and aversive processing, respectively.
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PremisecitationAdolescents show greater sensitivity than adults to both positive and aversive outcomes in antisaccade response latency, but not in error frequency or accuracy.
“adolescents were reported to exhibit greater sensitivity than adults to both positive and aversive outcomes (i.e., rewards and punishments) when indexed by incentive-related alterations in response latency to perform an antisaccade eye movement task, although not in terms of error frequency or accuracy”
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- cites Hardin et al, 2007
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InterpretationreasoningAlcohol insensitivities may contribute to elevated adolescent alcohol use and a trajectory toward problematic use and dependence.
“Collectively these alcohol insensitivities may potentially contribute to a pattern of elevated alcohol use during adolescence that places vulnerable youth on a trajectory toward problematic use and dependence”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Spear & Varlinskaya, 2005
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PremisecitationAdolescents differ from adults in how they attribute significance to cues and contexts associated with aversive stimuli and in how long those associations last.
“adolescents differ from adults not only in their relative resistance to aversive stimuli, but also in the way they attribute significance to cues and contexts associated with these stimuli, and in the longevity of these stimulus associations.”
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PremisereasoningAdolescents appear more emotional and emotionally reactive than adults and are more likely to have behavior and decision-making influenced by this emotionality.
“Adolescents not only appear more emotional and emotional reactive than adults, but they are also more likely to have their behavior and decision-making processes influenced by this volatile emotionality.”
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PremisecitationAdolescent insensitivity to the aversive effects of alcohol extends to various intoxicating effects, including social impairment, sedation, motor impairment, and some hangover effects.
“These adolescent alcohol insensitivities include alcohol-induced social impairment, sedation, motor impairment, and even some “hangover” effects”
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InterpretationreasoningAdolescent differences in responding to cues and contexts predicting aversive outcomes could influence avoidance and promote reinstatement of fear or stress-induced drug-seeking.
“Thus, adolescents sometimes differ notably from adults in their responding to cues and contexts predicting aversive outcomes – in ways that could perhaps influence their propensity to avoid aversive circumstances, while promoting reinstatement of fear or stress-induced drug-seeking behaviors.”
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PremisecitationCritical neural substrates for aversive conditioning include the amygdala, its interconnections with the medial prefrontal cortex, and the hippocampus, which undergo substantial developmental change during adolescence.
“critical neural substrates for this conditioning include regions previously discussed as undergoing substantial developmental change during adolescence – i.e., the amygdala and its interconnections with the mPFC, as well as other limbic areas such as the hippocampus”
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- cites Knapska & Maren, 2009
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- cites Cressman et al, 2010
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PremisecitationUnder similar fear conditioning and within-session extinction, adolescents show impaired retention of extinction and spontaneously reinstate fear to the conditioned stimulus.
“adolescents showed markedly impaired retention of the extinction, thereby spontaneously reinstating their fear to CS presentation”
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- cites Kim et al, 2011
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PremisecitationPositive urgency predicts increased risk taking and elevated ethanol consumption after positive mood induction, but not under neutral mood.
“positive urgency predicted increased risk taking as well as elevations in ethanol consumption after individuals were placed in a positive mood, but not when tested under neutral mood conditions”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cyders et al, 2010
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PremisecitationIncreased amygdala activation to emotional faces correlates with slower response times in a go/no-go task, and adolescents respond more slowly than adults in this task.
“increased amygdalar activation to these faces was correlated with slower response times when responding to these stimuli in a go/no-go task, with adolescents overall responding more slowly than adults in this task.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hare et al, 2008
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PremisecitationIn children, cardiovascular reactivity to emotional stimuli has no clear association with emotional expression; greater cardiac reactivity to a needle puncture tended to accompany less negative affect.
“found no clear association between children’s cardiovascular reactivity and their emotional expression, with children that showed greater cardiac reactivity to a needle puncture for blood draw even tending to exhibit less behavioral evidence of negative affect and emotional distress to the procedure”
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PremisecitationThe incidence of urgency spikes in adolescence, and the normative adolescent experience is characterized by heightened positive and negative urgency.
“the incidence of urgency have been suggested to spike in adolescence, with “the normative adolescent experience …characterized by developmentally heightened levels of positive and negative urgency””
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PremisecitationThe pubertal/adolescent transition is associated with increased autonomic and stress hormone reactivity to stressors and slower post-stress hormonal recovery relative to adults.
“the pubertal/adolescent transition in humans and laboratory animals has generally been reported to be associated with increased ANS and stress hormone reactivity to stressors (e.g., Vázquez, 1998; Walker et al, 2004; Gunnar et al, 2009; Stroud et al, 2009), along with slower post-stress hormonal recovery relative to adults (Romeo & McEwen, 2006).”
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- cites Walker et al, 2004
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- cites Romeo & McEwen, 2006
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PremisecitationAutonomic nervous system-associated somatic signs may be less strongly linked to emotional expression and to optimizing risky decision-making during development than in adulthood.
“ANS-associated somatic signs may not be as strongly linked to emotional expression (e.g., Quas et al, 2000; Stroud et al, 2009) or to optimizing risky decision-making (e.g., Crone & van der Molen, 2007) during development as in adulthood.”
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- cites Stroud et al, 2009
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- cites Crone & van der Molen, 2007
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PremisecitationAdolescents show greater amygdala activation to fearful faces relative to neutral faces than adults or than both children and adults.
“adolescents have been found to exhibit greater amygdalar activation to fearful faces (relative to neutral faces) than adults (Killgore et al, 2001; Monk et al, 2003; Guyer et al, 2008) or than both children and adults (Hare et al, 2008).”
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- cites Monk et al, 2003
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- cites Hare et al, 2008
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PremisecitationEmotional/affect and reward systems overlap considerably, are anatomically interconnected, and are closely functionally interrelated.
“While separable to some extent, these emotional/affect and reward systems overlap considerably. They are anatomically interconnected (e.g., see Chambers et al, 2003) and closely functionally interrelated”
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- cites Thiel et al, 2008
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- cites Figner et al, 2009
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PremisecitationAdolescent affective systems may be particularly labile to activation by rewarding stimuli, and reward has a greater behavioral impact on motivational salience in adolescence than in adulthood.
“adolescent affective systems may be particularly labile to activation by rewarding stimuli (e.g., see Galvan et al, 2006, 2007; Figner et al, 2009), with “a greater behavioural impact of reward on motivational salience” during adolescence than in adulthood”
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- cites Figner et al, 2009
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- cites Smith et al, 2011
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PremisecitationThe presence of peers considerably exacerbates risk-taking among adolescents but not adults.
“presence of peers considerably exacerbated risk-taking among adolescents, but not in adults”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gardner & Steinberg, 2005 source
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PremisecitationAutonomic nervous system-mediated bodily reactions reflect emotional reactions and serve as cues for emotional self-attributions.
“Such ANS-mediated bodily (somatic) reactions are thought not only to reflect emotional reactions, but also to serve as cues for making emotional self-attributions”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Verdejo-Garcia et al, 2006
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Premisenone givenEmotional stimuli often activate stress hormone release and alter autonomic nervous system activity.
“Emotional stimuli often activate release of stress hormones (via the hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal axis [HPA]), as well as alter activity in the autonomic nervous system (ANS)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe amygdala and nucleus accumbens/ventral striatum systems show greater reactivity in adolescence than adulthood under some circumstances, with inverted U-shaped developmental patterns.
“These two phylogenetically ancient, subcortical systems both show greater reactivity under some circumstances in adolescence than adulthood, with inverted U-shaped developmental patterns”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Galvan et al, 2006
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- cites Hare et al, 2008
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- cites Cohen et al, 2010
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PremisecitationStress increases activation in the ventral striatum, amygdala, and hippocampus while attenuating functional efficacy within the prefrontal cortex.
“stressors tending to increase activation in the ventral striatum, amygdala and other subcortical regions such as the hippocampus, while attenuating functional efficacy within the PFC”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Arnsten, 1998
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- cites Liston et al, 2009
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Premisecitation18-29 year olds show greater arousal to pleasant stimuli and lower arousal to unpleasant stimuli than mature and older adults.
“youngest age group examined (18–29 year olds), which included late adolescents, showed greater arousal to pleasant stimuli (appetitive activation) but lower arousal to unpleasant stimuli (aversive activation) than mature (30–59 year old) and older (≥ 60 year old) adults.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Keil & Freund, 2009
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InterpretationreasoningReactivity in reward and emotional/affective systems may be particularly pronounced in adolescence partly because of unusually strong cross-reactivity between these systems.
“There are hints that reactivity in these reward and emotional/affective systems may be particularly pronounced in adolescence, in part because of unusually strong cross-reactivity between these systems during adolescence.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenAdolescents are often less sensitive to aversive outcomes and sometimes respond differently than adults to learning and forgetting of cues and contexts associated with those stimuli.
“adolescents are often less sensitive to aversive outcomes and sometimes respond differently than adults to the learning and forgetting of cues and contexts associated with these stimuli.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationAdolescent-typical shifts toward greater rewarding and attenuated aversive properties extend to alcohol and other drugs and may contribute to greater benefit and less cost attributed to risky behavior.
“Such adolescent-typical shifts toward greater rewarding and attenuated aversive properties seem to extend to alcohol and other drugs as well, and may contribute to the propensity of adolescents to attach greater benefit and less cost to risky behavior such as alcohol and cigarette use than attributed by individuals at other ages”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Millstein & Halpern-Felsher, 2002
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InterpretationreasoningHedonic shifts could encourage risk-taking, especially with peers, and promote continued engagement in risky activities when prior activities were exciting without catastrophic consequences.
“Such hedonic shifts could encourage risk-taking, especially when in the presence of peers, for its thrilling and exciting aspects, and may help promote continued engagement in risky activities when prior activities have proved exciting but without catastrophic consequences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningCross-reactivity between emotional/affect and reward systems may be particularly prominent during adolescence and may help trigger exaggerated reactivity in these systems.
“provide emerging empirical support for the notion of cross-reactivity between emotional/affect and reward systems that may be particularly prominent during adolescence and that may help trigger the exaggerated reactivity often seen in these systems at this time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe presence of social peers enhances the rewarding properties of cocaine and nicotine in adolescent rats and further attenuates adolescent sensitivity to the aversive effects of alcohol, an effect not seen in adults.
“the presence of social peers enhances the rewarding properties of cocaine and nicotine among adolescent rats (Thiel et al, 2008, 2009), while further attenuating adolescent sensitivity to aversive effects of alcohol, an effect not seen in adults”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Thiel et al, 2008
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- cites Thiel et al, 2009
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- cites Vetter-O’Hagen et al, 2009
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Interpretationnone givenAdolescent neural and behavioral sensitivity to rewards sometimes appears heightened, especially for strong rewards, but less reactive to reward-predictive cues and perhaps weak rewards.
“Their neural and behavioral sensitivity to rewards, especially strong rewards, sometimes appears to be heightened, whereas they appear less reactive under other circumstances, especially when responding to cues that predict rewards, and perhaps when receiving relatively weak rewards.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAdolescents appear particularly prone to emotional arousal and greater risk-taking, especially under social circumstances.
“they appear particularly prone to becoming emotionally aroused, and to exhibit greater risk-taking, especially under social circumstances.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSleep deprivation enhances ventral striatal responding during reward outcomes and attenuates insula responding following losses in human adolescents.
“even sleep deprivation was found to enhance ventral striatal responding during reward outcomes, while attenuating responding in insula following losses”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Venkatraman et al, 2011
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InterpretationreasoningVentral striatum/nAc reward-relevant systems in adolescence are not simply early maturing or hyper-reactive; they show differential age sensitivities, with often enhanced reactivity when receiving or preparing to respond for rewards but sometimes attenuated sensitivity to cues associated with those rewards.
“ventral striatum/nAc reward-relevant systems are not simply early maturing or hyper-reactive, but rather display differential age sensitivities characterized by: (1) often enhanced reactivity when receiving (or preparing to respond for) rewards, but (2) sometimes attenuated sensitivities to cues associated with those rewards.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Findings from laboratory animal studies can be generalized to human adolescents.
- Rests on an assumption: fMRI activation in ventral striatum and amygdala indexes reward and aversive processing, respectively.
- Rests on an assumption: Behavioral measures such as sign-tracking, goal-tracking, and taste reactivity validly index anticipatory wanting and consummatory liking in rats.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDuring adolescence, individuals show elevated reward- and sensation-seeking, more peer-directed social interaction, and greater risk-taking, and they often begin exploratory use of alcohol and other drugs.
“The adolescent transition is associated with increases in reward- and sensation-seeking, peer-directed social interactions, and risk-taking, with exploratory use of alcohol and other drugs often beginning at this time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Hartup & Stevens; 1997
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- cites Brown, 2004
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- cites Steinberg, 2007 source
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InterpretationreasoningAdolescents often respond differently than adults to cues and contexts associated with aversive stimuli, in ways that could potentially promote fear reinstatement or stress-induced drug seeking.
“and often respond differently than adults to cues and contexts associated with these stimuli (in ways that could potentially promote fear reinstatement or stress-induced drug seeking).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationReward-seeking on a gambling task rises to peak beginning at 14-15 years of age, with declines after 21 years.
“reward-seeking was reported to rise to peak beginning at 14–15 years of age, with declines in this measure seen after 21 years (Cauffman et al, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cauffman et al, 2010 source
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PremisecitationAdolescent rats show transient increases in peer-directed social interactions, novelty-seeking/risk taking, and consummatory behaviors, and they voluntarily consume 2-3 times more ethanol than adult rats.
“even in a simple rodent model, adolescent rats exhibit transient age-related increases in peer-directed social interactions, novelty-seeking/risk taking, and consummatory behaviors, and voluntarily consume 2–3 fold more ethanol than their adult counterparts (see Spear, 2000, 2007; Doremus et al, 2005, for review).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Spear, 2000 source
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- cites Spear, 2007
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- cites Doremus et al, 2005 source
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- Rests on an assumption: Findings from laboratory animal studies can be generalized to human adolescents.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAdolescent rats are more sensitive than adults to the rewarding effects of alcohol and to alcohol's facilitation of social behavior.
“Adolescent rats are not only more sensitive than adults to the rewarding effects of alcohol, but also to the facilitation of social behavior by alcohol, perhaps enhancing alcohol’s rewarding properties further in social contexts (e.g., Varlinskaya & Spear, 2002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Varlinskaya & Spear, 2002
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- Rests on an assumption: Findings from laboratory animal studies can be generalized to human adolescents.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningEmotional or socially stimulating situations may further exacerbate adolescent propensities toward enhanced responsiveness when receiving or responding for rewards but attenuated sensitivities to aversive stimuli.
“As a result, emotional or socially-stimulating situations may further exacerbate adolescent propensities toward enhanced responsiveness when receiving (or responding for) rewards but attenuated sensitivities to aversive stimuli”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAdolescents show greater sensitivity than adults to both positive and aversive outcomes in an antisaccade task when indexed by incentive-related response latency, but not in error frequency or accuracy.
“adolescents were reported to exhibit greater sensitivity than adults to both positive and aversive outcomes (i.e., rewards and punishments) when indexed by incentive-related alterations in response latency to perform an antisaccade eye movement task, although not in terms of error frequency or accuracy (Jazbec et al, 2006; Hardin et al, 2007).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Jazbec et al, 2006
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- cites Hardin et al, 2007 source
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PremisecitationAdolescent insensitivity to alcohol extends to social impairment, sedation, motor impairment, and some hangover effects, but not to disruption in brain plasticity and memory.
“These adolescent alcohol insensitivities include alcohol-induced social impairment, sedation, motor impairment, and even some “hangover” effects (see Spear & Varlinskaya, 2005, for review), although this insensitivity does not extend to the disruption in brain plasticity and memory that also emerges at higher alcohol exposure levels (White & Swartzwelder, 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Spear & Varlinskaya, 2005
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- cites White & Swartzwelder, 2005
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PremisecitationAdolescent rats produce significantly fewer 50 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (but more social behavior) during social interactions than adults.
“adolescent rats were found to produce significantly fewer USVs (but more social behavior) during social interactions (Willey et al, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Willey et al, 2009 source
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- Rests on an assumption: Findings from laboratory animal studies can be generalized to human adolescents.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDA receptor density in dorsal striatum peaks early in adolescence in humans and laboratory animals, followed by losses of one-third to almost 50% by young adulthood.
“The density of DA receptor sites peaks in dorsal striatum early in adolescence in humans and laboratory animals, followed by losses of one-third to almost 50% of these receptors by young adulthood (Seeman et al, 1987; Tarazi & Baldessarini, 2000; Teicher et al, 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Seeman et al, 1987 source
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- cites Tarazi & Baldessarini, 2000 source
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- cites Teicher et al, 2003 source
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- Rests on an assumption: The DA system alterations observed in animals are relevant to human adolescent reward processing.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationIncreases in negative affect across early adolescence could reflect greater exposure to stressors during this developmental transition rather than increased sensitivity to aversive stimuli and punishment.
“increases in negative affect across early adolescence could also reflect greater exposure to stressors during this developmental transition (see Spear, 2000, for discussion) rather than an increased sensitivity to aversive stimuli and punishment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Spear, 2000 source
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PremisecitationBehar et al. (1983) reported that 8-15 year old boys given alcohol showed little behavioral change clinically, subjectively, or on a validated intoxication test, less than an adult population.
“Behar and colleagues (1983) reporting that “little behavioral change was noted clinically, subjectively, or on a validated objective test of intoxication…” and that they “were impressed by how little gross behavioral change occurred in the children…after a dose of alcohol which had been intoxicating in an adult population” (p.407).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Behar et al, 1983 source
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PremisecitationIn laboratory animals, adolescent rats exhibit attenuated DA transients in ventral striatum to novel sensory stimuli compared with adults, but greater DA release to highly palatable food reward.
“In response to a variety of types of novel sensory (visual, olfactory and auditory) stimuli, adolescent rats were found to exhibit attenuated DA transients in the ventral striatum when compared with adults, whereas they exhibited greater DA release to a highly palatable food reward (Ung et al, 2010; Robinson et al, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Ung et al, 2010
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- cites Robinson et al, 2011 source
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- Rests on an assumption: Findings from laboratory animal studies can be generalized to human adolescents.
- Rests on an assumption: Behavioral measures such as sign-tracking, goal-tracking, and taste reactivity validly index anticipatory wanting and consummatory liking in rats.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn humans and laboratory animals, frontal cortex volume declines during adolescence while amygdala volume increases.
“In both humans and laboratory animals, the volume of frontal cortex decreases in adolescence whereas the volume of the amygdala increases (e.g., Giedd et al, 1996; Giedd, 2004; Markham et al, 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationDA receptor density in PFC does not peak until late adolescence, with pruning not occurring until young adulthood.
“DA receptor density in PFC does not peak until late adolescence, with pruning of these receptor populations not occurring until young adulthood (Andersen et al, 2000; Weickert et al, 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Andersen et al, 2000 source
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- cites Weickert et al, 2007 source
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- Rests on an assumption: The DA system alterations observed in animals are relevant to human adolescent reward processing.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn Ernst et al. (2005b), adolescents showed less amygdala activation during punishment than adults and greater ventral striatal activation to rewards.
“adolescents were found to exhibit less pronounced activation of the amygdala during punishment (response omission) than adults, while also showing greater ventral striatal activation to rewards (Ernst et al, 2005b).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ernst et al, 2005b
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PremisecitationIn that study, ventral striatum recruitment correlated with positive affect to reward only among adolescents, while adults showed a correlation between negative emotion and decreased amygdala activation on punishment trials.
“level of ventral striatum recruitment was found to correlate with positive affect to reward receipt only among adolescents, with adults (but not adolescents) showing a correlation between negative emotion and decreased amygdala activation on punishment (reward omission) trials”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ernst et al, 2005a
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PremisecitationIn a taste reactivity paradigm, adolescents showed less negative reactivity to quinine than adults and elevated positive responding to certain sucrose concentrations.
“adolescents consistently showed less negative taste reactivity to the aversive tastant quinine than adults, while conversely exhibiting adolescent-associated elevations in positive responding to certain concentrations of sucrose (Wilmouth & Spear, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wilmouth & Spear, 2009
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PremisecitationSome groups find no evidence of enhanced ventral striatal responses to reward receipt during adolescence, and there is evidence for a post-pubertal decline in striatal reactivity to reward outcome.
“some groups finding no evidence of enhanced ventral striatal responses to receipt of rewards during adolescence (Bjork et al, 2004, 2010a; Holm et al, 2009; Forbes et al, 2010), along with evidence for a post-pubertal decline in striatal reactivity to reward outcome (Forbes et al, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Bjork et al, 2004 source
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- cites Holm et al, 2009 source
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- cites Forbes et al, 2010
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- Rests on an assumption: fMRI activation in ventral striatum and amygdala indexes reward and aversive processing, respectively.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationErnst and colleagues' triadic model suggests adolescents have a less active amygdala harm-avoidant system than adults, based in part on fMRI data showing attenuated amygdala responses to aversive outcomes and negative-valenced stimuli during adolescence.
“based in part on the results of fMRI imaging data showing attenuated amygdala responses to aversive outcomes and negative-valenced stimuli during adolescence, Ernst and colleagues (2005a) suggested in their triadic model that adolescents have a less active amygdala “harm avoidant” system than adults.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ernst et al, 2005a
Not checked in the free run.
- Rests on an assumption: Findings from laboratory animal studies can be generalized to human adolescents.
- Rests on an assumption: fMRI activation in ventral striatum and amygdala indexes reward and aversive processing, respectively.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationAdolescents differ from adults in attributing significance to cues and contexts associated with aversive stimuli and in the longevity of these associations.
“adolescents differ from adults not only in their relative resistance to aversive stimuli, but also in the way they attribute significance to cues and contexts associated with these stimuli, and in the longevity of these stimulus associations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisereasoningAdolescents are more emotional and emotionally reactive than adults and are more likely to have behavior and decision-making influenced by this emotionality.
“Adolescents not only appear more emotional and emotional reactive than adults, but they are also more likely to have their behavior and decision-making processes influenced by this volatile emotionality.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThese differences could influence propensity to avoid aversive circumstances and promote reinstatement of fear or stress-induced drug-seeking.
“in ways that could perhaps influence their propensity to avoid aversive circumstances, while promoting reinstatement of fear or stress-induced drug-seeking behaviors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationAlcohol insensitivities may combine with developmental insensitivities and be exacerbated by repeated alcohol use or stress.
“may combine with developmental insensitivities and be further exacerbated by a history of repeated alcohol use or stress (Doremus-Fitzwater et al, 2007; Varlinskaya & Spear, 2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Doremus-Fitzwater et al, 2007
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- cites Varlinskaya & Spear, 2008
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PremisecitationThe pubertal/adolescent transition in humans and laboratory animals is generally associated with increased ANS and stress hormone reactivity to stressors, and slower post-stress hormonal recovery relative to adults.
“the pubertal/adolescent transition in humans and laboratory animals has generally been reported to be associated with increased ANS and stress hormone reactivity to stressors (e.g., Vázquez, 1998; Walker et al, 2004; Gunnar et al, 2009; Stroud et al, 2009), along with slower post-stress hormonal recovery relative to adults (Romeo & McEwen, 2006).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking, adolescents show attenuated reinstatement relative to adults, but only adolescents show stress-induced reinstatement.
“adolescents likewise showed attenuated reinstatement relative to adults to cues that had previously been paired with cocaine self-administration (Li & Frantz, 2009; Anker & Carroll, 2010), although only the adolescents showed stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking (Anker & Carroll, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Li & Frantz, 2009
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- cites Anker & Carroll, 2010
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InterpretationcitationANS-associated somatic signs may not be as strongly linked to emotional expression or to optimizing risky decision-making during development as in adulthood.
“a number of studies have hinted to the provocative possibility that ANS-associated somatic signs may not be as strongly linked to emotional expression (e.g., Quas et al, 2000; Stroud et al, 2009) or to optimizing risky decision-making (e.g., Crone & van der Molen, 2007) during development as in adulthood.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPositive urgency predicted increased risk taking and ethanol consumption after positive mood induction in college students, but not under neutral mood.
“positive urgency predicted increased risk taking as well as elevations in ethanol consumption after individuals were placed in a positive mood, but not when tested under neutral mood conditions (Cyders et al, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cyders et al, 2010 source
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PremisecitationIncreased amygdalar activation to emotional faces correlated with slower response times in a go/no-go task, with adolescents responding more slowly overall than adults.
“increased amygdalar activation to these faces was correlated with slower response times when responding to these stimuli in a go/no-go task, with adolescents overall responding more slowly than adults in this task.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hare et al, 2008 source
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PremisecitationUnder conditions of similar fear conditioning and within-session extinction, adolescents show impaired retention of extinction and spontaneously reinstate fear to CS presentation.
“adolescents showed markedly impaired retention of the extinction, thereby spontaneously reinstating their fear to CS presentation (McCallum et al, 2010; Kim et al, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAdolescents show greater amygdalar activation to fearful faces relative to neutral faces than adults or than both children and adults.
“adolescents have been found to exhibit greater amygdalar activation to fearful faces (relative to neutral faces) than adults (Killgore et al, 2001; Monk et al, 2003; Guyer et al, 2008) or than both children and adults (Hare et al, 2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationGreater amygdala activation to emotional facial stimuli during adolescence has been proposed to reflect increased reactivity to emotional properties of social stimuli.
“Signs of greater amygdala activation to emotional facial stimuli during adolescence under some test circumstances have been proposed to reflect an increased reactivity of adolescents to the emotional properties of social stimuli (Monk et al, 2003; Nelson et al, 2005: Hare et al, 2008).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationKeil and Freund (2009) found that the youngest age group (18-29) showed greater arousal to pleasant stimuli but lower arousal to unpleasant stimuli than mature and older adults.
“Keil and Freund (2009) found that the youngest age group examined (18–29 year olds), which included late adolescents, showed greater arousal to pleasant stimuli (appetitive activation) but lower arousal to unpleasant stimuli (aversive activation) than mature (30–59 year old) and older (≥ 60 year old) adults.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Keil & Freund, 2009
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PremisecitationThe amygdala and nAc/ventral striatum systems both show greater reactivity under some circumstances in adolescence than adulthood, with inverted U-shaped developmental patterns.
“These two phylogenetically ancient, subcortical systems both show greater reactivity under some circumstances in adolescence than adulthood, with inverted U-shaped developmental patterns characterized by rises in neurobehavioral reactivity to emotional/affective and rewarding stimuli under some circumstances early in adolescence that diminish during late adolescence and in adulthood (e.g., Galvan”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationAdolescent-typical shifts toward greater rewarding and attenuated aversive properties extend to alcohol and other drugs, and may contribute to adolescents attaching greater benefit and less cost to risky behavior such as alcohol and cigarette use than individuals at other ages.
“adolescent-typical shifts toward greater rewarding and attenuated aversive properties seem to extend to alcohol and other drugs as well, and may contribute to the propensity of adolescents to attach greater benefit and less cost to risky behavior such as alcohol and cigarette use than attributed by individuals at other ages (see Millstein & Halpern-Felsher, 2002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Millstein & Halpern-Felsher, 2002 source
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PremisecitationIn adolescent rats, mild food deprivation exacerbated extinction responding to a reward-predictive cue, while no interaction was seen in adults.
“elevations in motivational/emotional arousal induced by mild food deprivation were found to exacerbate extinction responding to a cue previously predicting reward among adolescent rats, whereas no interaction of motivational status and the presence of the reward-predictive cue was seen in adults (Sturman et al, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sturman et al, 2010 source
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PremisecitationIn human adolescents, sleep deprivation enhanced ventral striatal responding during reward outcomes while attenuating insula responding following losses.
“even sleep deprivation was found to enhance ventral striatal responding during reward outcomes, while attenuating responding in insula following losses (Venkatraman et al, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Venkatraman et al, 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningReactivity in reward and emotional/affective systems may be particularly pronounced in adolescence, in part because of unusually strong cross-reactivity between these systems.
“There are hints that reactivity in these reward and emotional/affective systems may be particularly pronounced in adolescence, in part because of unusually strong cross-reactivity between these systems during adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationStressors tend to increase activation in ventral striatum, amygdala, and hippocampus, while attenuating functional efficacy within PFC.
“stressors tending to increase activation in the ventral striatum, amygdala and other subcortical regions such as the hippocampus, while attenuating functional efficacy within the PFC (Arnsten, 1998, Liston et al, 2009)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAdolescents' neural and behavioral sensitivity to rewards sometimes appears heightened, but they appear less reactive under other circumstances, especially to cues predicting rewards and perhaps weak rewards.
“Their neural and behavioral sensitivity to rewards, especially strong rewards, sometimes appears to be heightened, whereas they appear less reactive under other circumstances, especially when responding to cues that predict rewards, and perhaps when receiving relatively weak rewards.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningSuch hedonic shifts could encourage risk-taking, especially with peers, for thrilling aspects, and may promote continued engagement in risky activities when prior activities proved exciting but not catastrophic.
“Such hedonic shifts could encourage risk-taking, especially when in the presence of peers, for its thrilling and exciting aspects, and may help promote continued engagement in risky activities when prior activities have proved exciting but without catastrophic consequences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationTasks involving rewards appear particularly arousing during adolescence, with marked increases in attention and shorter reaction times under rewarding than less rewarding conditions.
“tasks involving rewards appear to be particularly arousing during adolescence, with adolescents reported to show particularly marked increases in attention and shorter reaction times under rewarding than less rewarding conditions – a difference that is more prominent than at other ages (Jazbec et al, 2006; Hardin et al, 2007; Cohen et al, 2010; Smith et al, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAdolescents are often less sensitive to aversive outcomes and sometimes respond differently than adults to learning and forgetting of cues and contexts associated with these stimuli.
“adolescents are often less sensitive to aversive outcomes and sometimes respond differently than adults to the learning and forgetting of cues and contexts associated with these stimuli.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationEmotional/affect and reward systems overlap anatomically and functionally.
“They are anatomically interconnected (e.g., see Chambers et al, 2003) and closely functionally interrelated, with for instance socio-emotional stimuli influencing salience of rewarding stimuli (e.g., Thiel et al, 2008, 2009), and the presence or omission of potential or expected rewards often contributing to emotional affect (e.g., see Figner et al, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningTaken together, these findings provide emerging empirical support for cross-reactivity between emotional/affect and reward systems that may be particularly prominent during adolescence and may help trigger exaggerated reactivity.
“Taken together, these disparate findings provide emerging empirical support for the notion of cross-reactivity between emotional/affect and reward systems that may be particularly prominent during adolescence and that may help trigger the exaggerated reactivity often seen in these systems at this time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Findings from laboratory animal studies can be generalized to human adolescents.
“Drawing across human behavioral and fMRI data and studies conducting in laboratory animals, this review examines processing of rewards, aversions, and affect in adolescence.”
The paper relies on this without support.
fMRI activation in ventral striatum and amygdala indexes reward and aversive processing, respectively.
“Evidence is mounting in human fMRI studies that the ventral striatum of the adolescent processes rewarding stimuli differently than do adults”
The paper relies on this without support.
Behavioral measures such as sign-tracking, goal-tracking, and taste reactivity validly index anticipatory wanting and consummatory liking in rats.
“at least when using tests of sign-tracking to index “wanting” (Robinson & Berridge, 2003)”
The paper relies on this without support.
The DA system alterations observed in animals are relevant to human adolescent reward processing.
“Marked developmental alterations are seen in the DA system through adolescence and into adulthood, as reviewed recently elsewhere (Ernst et al, 2009; Galvan, 2010; Wahlstrom et al, 2010).”
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Triangulation in the triadic model permits a more sensitive account of different neural mechanisms driving specific aspects of motivated behavior, including responses to appetitive or aversive stimuli, which differ across age groups.
“This triangulation permits a more sensitive account for the different neural mechanisms driving specific aspects of motivated behavior, including responses to either appetitive or aversive stimuli, as they have been shown to differ across age groups (Spear, 2011).”
From A systematic review of fMRI reward paradigms used in studies of adolescents vs. adults: The impact of task design and implications for understanding neurodevelopment (2013) · cites this paper as Spear, 2011
Maturational changes in DA function have not been mapped directly onto behaviors in adolescence, suggesting that a comprehensive examination of the interaction of various aspects of the DA system and their direct effects on behavior is warranted.
“Adding to this complexity, maturational changes in DA function have not been mapped directly onto behaviors in adolescence suggesting that a comprehensive examination of the interaction of various aspects of the DA system (e.g. receptors, clearance, innervation) and their direct effects on behavior is warranted (Spear 2011; Luciana, Wahlstrom et al. 2012).”
From Developmental imaging genetics: Linking dopamine function to adolescent behavior (2014) · cites this paper as Spear 2011
Relatively less is known about the development processes underlying loss compared to what is known of these processes for reward.
“Relatively less is known about the development processes underlying loss compared to what is known of these processes for reward (Spear, 2011).”
From Effects of incentives, age, and behavior on brain activation during inhibitory control: a longitudinal fMRI study (2015) · cites this paper as Spear, 2011
Risky behavior during the adolescent period is not specific to humans; adolescent compared with adult rats show increased risk-taking, novelty seeking, and voluntary alcohol consumption.
“risky behavior during the adolescent period is not specific to humans; for example, adolescent as compared to adult rats show increased risk-taking, novelty seeking, and voluntary alcohol consumption (Doremus et al., 2005; Spear, 2011; Wilmouth & Spear, 2009).”
From Neural networks involved in adolescent reward processing: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies (2015) · cites this paper as Spear, 2011
In reward contexts, the nucleus accumbens region of the ventral striatum acts as a motivation-to-behavior interface, facilitating approach behavior.
“In reward contexts, the nucleus accumbens region of the ventral striatum acts as a motivation-to-behavior interface, facilitating approach behavior by integrating information provided by excitatory inputs from the amygdala as well as other regions (Spear, 2011).”
From Neural networks involved in adolescent reward processing: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies (2015) · cites this paper as Spear, 2011
Across many species, including rodents, nonhuman primates, and humans, adolescents show peaks in reward-related behaviors, providing strong evidence for the conservation of reward processing across evolution.
“Across many species, including rodents, nonhuman primates, and humans, adolescents show peaks in reward-related behaviors, providing strong evidence for the conservation of reward processing across evolution (Spear, 2011).”
From Dopaminergic reward sensitivity can promote adolescent health: a new perspective on the mechanism of ventral striatum activation (2016) · cites this paper as Spear, 2011
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The Teenage Brain: Adolescents and Alcohol
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- Authors
- Spear, L. P.
- Affiliations
- Binghamton University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Spear, Linda Patia
- ORCID
- Spear, Linda Patia
- Venue
- Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-10
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 390-403
- ISSN
- 1878-9293 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3170768
- OpenAlex
- W2051263030
- Semantic Scholar
- 9d3bb235ed4064e8a23a0186555497d45151a73e
- Cited by
- 292
- References
- 217
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 37 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 1.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Academy of Sciences
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- adolescence, reward processing, aversive stimuli, affect, emotional arousal, social environment, risk-taking, cross-reactivity, alcohol and drug use, evolutionary biology, functional MRI
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Affect, Animals, Animals, Laboratory, Avoidance Learning, Humans, Reward, Species Specificity
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