Activated iron-containing microglia in the human hippocampus identified by magnetic resonance imaging in Alzheimer disease
Open accessAbstract
Although amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary pathology play important roles in Alzheimer disease (AD), our understanding of AD is incomplete, and the contribution of microglia and iron to neurodegeneration is unknown. High-field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is exquisitely sensitive to microscopic iron. To explore iron-associated neuroinflammatory AD pathology, we studied AD and control human brain specimens by (1) performing ultra-high resolution ex vivo 7 Tesla MRI, (2) coregistering the MRI with successive histologic staining for iron, microglia, amyloid beta, and tau, and (3) quantifying the relationship between magnetic resonance signal intensity and histological staining. In AD, we identified numerous small MR hypointensities primarily within the subiculum that were best explained by the combination of microscopic iron and activated microglia (p = 0.025), in contradistinction to the relatively lesser contribution of tau or amyloid. Neuropathologically, this suggests that microglial-mediated neurodegeneration may occur in the hippocampal formation in AD and is detectable by ultra-high resolution MRI.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Activated microglia can accumulate iron in Alzheimer's disease, e.g., in the hippocampus as detected by ultra-high-resolution MR.
“Apart from neurons, activated microglia can accumulate iron in Alzheimer’s disease, e.g., in the hippocampus as detected my ultra-high-resolution MR [258].”
From “Pumping iron”—how macrophages handle iron at the systemic, microenvironmental, and cellular levels (2017) · cites this paper as [258]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis
Schindelin, J., Arganda-Carreras, I., Frise, E., Kaynig, V., Longair, M., Pietzsch, T., Preibisch, S., Rueden, C., Saalfeld, S., Schmid, B., et al. (2012) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/nmeth.2019 · Cited by 66,890 · see citing works
Neuropathological stageing of Alzheimer-related changes.
Braak, H., & Braak, E. (1991) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/bf00308809 · Cited by 16,123 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Alzheimer disease (AD) is pathologically characterized primarily by the presence of amyloid beta (Ab) plaques and tau-rich neurofibrillary tangles in the clinical context of memory impairment (Braak and Braak, 1991; Selkoe, 2008).”
Mirra, S. S., Heyman, A., McKeel, D., Sumi, S. M., Crain, B. J., Brownlee, L. M., Vogel, F. S., Hughes, J. P., Belle, G. V., Berg, L., et al. (1991) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.41.4.479 · Cited by 4,961 · see citing works
Terry, R. D., Masliah, E., Salmon, D. P., Butters, N., DeTeresa, R., Hill, R., Hansen, L. A., & Katzman, R. (1991) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410300410 · Cited by 4,397 · see citing works
Globally optimal stitching of tiled 3D microscopic image acquisitions
Preibisch, S., Saalfeld, S., & Tomancak, P. (2009) · Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btp184 · Cited by 2,452 · see citing works
Copper, iron and zinc in Alzheimer's disease senile plaques
Lovell, M. A., Robertson, J. D., Teesdale, W. J., Campbell, J. L., & Markesbery, W. R. (1998) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/s0022-510x(98)00092-6 · Cited by 2,120 · see citing works
Profound Loss of Layer II Entorhinal Cortex Neurons Occurs in Very Mild Alzheimer’s Disease
Gómez-Isla, T., Price, J. L., McKeel Jr., D. W., Morris, J. C., Growdon, J. H., & Hyman, B. T. (1996) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.16-14-04491.1996 · Cited by 1,796 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Given the subiculum is the key locationwhere entorhinal perforant and alvear pathway neurons cross en route to the hippocampus (Witter and Amaral, 1991), the microglial activity identified here could possibly represent entorhinal neurodegeneration, known to be significant at an early stage of AD (Gómez-Isla et al., 19…”
Integrated Systems Approach Identifies Genetic Nodes and Networks in Late-Onset Alzheimer’s Disease
Zhang, B., Gaiteri, C., Bodea, L.-G., Wang, Z., McElwee, J., Podtelezhnikov, A. A., Zhang, C., Xie, T., Tran, L., Dobrin, R., et al. (2013) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2013.03.030 · Cited by 1,657 · see citing works
Propagation of Tau Pathology in a Model of Early Alzheimer's Disease
de Calignon, A., Polydoro, M., Suárez-Calvet, M., William, C., Adamowicz, D. H., Kopeikina, K. J., Pitstick, R., Sahara, N., Ashe, K. H., Carlson, G. A., et al. (2012) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.11.033 · Cited by 1,427 · see citing works
Iron accumulation in Alzheimer disease is a source of redox-generated free radicals
Smith, M. A., Harris, P. L. R., Sayre, L. M., & Perry, G. L. (1997) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.94.18.9866 · Cited by 1,357 · see citing works
The Intersection of Amyloid Beta and Tau at Synapses in Alzheimer’s Disease
Spires-Jones, T. L., & Hyman, B. T. (2014) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.05.004 · Cited by 1,201 · see citing works
Alzheimer’s Disease Risk Gene CD33 Inhibits Microglial Uptake of Amyloid Beta
Griciuc, A., Serrano-Pozo, A., Parrado, A. R., Lesinski, A. N., Asselin, C. N., Mullin, K., Hooli, B., Choi, S. H., Hyman, B. T., & Tanzi, R. E. (2013) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.04.014 · Cited by 1,004 · see citing works
The Genetics of Alzheimer's Disease
Bertram, L., & Tanzi, R. E. (2012) · Progress in molecular biology and translational science · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-385883-2.00008-4 · Cited by 784 · see citing works
The genetics of Alzheimer disease
Tanzi, R. E. (2012) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a006296 · Cited by 727 · see citing works
Early Clinical PET Imaging Results with the Novel PHF-Tau Radioligand [F18]-T808
Chien, D. T., Szardenings, A. K., Bahri, S., Walsh, J. C., Mu, F., Xia, C. A., Shankle, W. R., Lerner, A. J., Su, M., Elizarov, A. M., et al. (2013) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-130098 · Cited by 676 · see citing works
Early clinical PET imaging results with the novel PHF-tau radioligand [F-18]-T807
Chien, D. T., Bahri, S., Szardenings, A. K., Walsh, J. C., Mu, F., Su, M.-Y., Shankle, W. R., Elizarov, A., & Kolb, H. C. (2013) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-122059 · Cited by 651 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Tau-based agents have shown rapid progress, but these tracers have thus far predominantly been positive late in the disease (Chien et al., 2013).”
Deibel, M. A., Ehmann, W. D., & Markesbery, W. R. (1996) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/s0022-510x(96)00203-1 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
Alzheimer neuropathologic alterations in aged cognitively normal subjects
Davis, D. G., Schmitt, F. A., Wekstein, D. R., & Markesbery, W. R. (1999) · Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1097/00005072-199904000-00008 · Cited by 516 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…AD (Tanzi, 2012), themechanism of plaque-mediated neurodegeneration is unclear because of the presence of plaques in healthy elderly controls (Arnold et al., 2013; Davis et al., 1999) and the lack of a strong correlation between plaque deposition and the severity of dementia (Terry et al., 1991).”
Edison, P., Archer, H. A., Gerhard, A., Hinz, R., Pavese, N., Turkheimer, F. E., Hammers, A., Tai, Y. F., Fox, N., Kennedy, A., et al. (2008) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2008.08.001 · Cited by 513 · see citing works
Witter, M. P., & Amaral, D. G. (1991) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.903070308 · Cited by 480 · see citing works
A histochemical study of iron, transferrin, and ferritin in Alzheimer's diseased brains
Connor, J. R., Menzies, S. L., Martin, S. M. S., & Mufson, E. J. (1992) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.490310111 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
The amyloid cascade-inflammatory hypothesis of Alzheimer disease: implications for therapy
McGeer, P. L., & McGeer, E. G. (2013) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-013-1177-7 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
Mutations causing neurodegenerative tauopathies
Goedert, M., & Jakes, R. (2005) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2004.08.007 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
Rosene, D. L., & Van Hoesen, G. W. (1987) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-6616-8_9 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
Sequence of Aβ-protein deposition in the human medial temporal lobe
Thal, D. R., Rüb, U., Schultz, C., Sassin, I., Ghebremedhin, E., Del Tredici, K., Braak, E., & Braak, H. (2000) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1093/jnen/59.8.733 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
Tomic, J. L., Pensalfini, A., Head, E., & Glabe, C. G. (2009) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2009.05.024 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Quintana, C., Bellefqih, S., Laval, J. Y., Guerquin‐Kern, J., Wu, T., Ávila, J., Ferrer, I., Arranz, R., & Patiño, C. (2005) · Journal of Structural Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jsb.2005.11.001 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
A novel approach to the human connectome: Ultra-high resolution mapping of fiber tracts in the brain
Axer, M., Amunts, K., Gräßel, D., Palm, C., Dammers, J., Axer, H., Pietrzyk, U., & Zilles, K. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.08.075 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Ferritin is a component of the neuritic (senile) plaque in Alzheimer dementia
Grundke, I., Fleming, J. T., Tung, Y. C., Lassmann, H., Iqbal, K., & Joshi, J. G. (1990) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/bf00334497 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
Detection of neuritic plaques in Alzheimer’s disease by magnetic resonance microscopy
Benveniste, H., Einstein, G., Kim, K. R., Hulette, C., & Johnson, G. A. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.24.14079 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Ding, S. (2013) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.23416 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Molecular imaging of microglia/macrophages in the brain
Venneti, S., Lopresti, B. J., & Wiley, C. A. (2012) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.22357 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Quintana, C., COWLEY, J. M., & Marhic, C. (2004) · Journal of Structural Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jsb.2004.03.001 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Sheng, J. G., Mrak, R. E., & Griffin, W. S. T. (1995) · Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2990.1995.tb01063.x · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Rational Development of Addiction Pharmacotherapies: Successes, Failures, and ProspectsPreprint
Pierce, R. C., O'Brien, C. P., Kenny, P. J., & Vanderschuren, L. J. M. J. (2012) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a012880 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Meadowcroft, M. D., Connor, J. R., Smith, M. B., & Yang, Q. X. (2009) · Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1002/jmri.21731 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Yokokura, M., Mori, N., Yagi, S., Yoshikawa, E., Kikuchi, M., Yoshihara, Y., Wakuda, T., Sugihara, G., Takebayashi, K., Suda, S., et al. (2011) · European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging · doi:10.1007/s00259-010-1612-0 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Histology-derived volumetric annotation of the human hippocampal subfields in postmortem MRI
Adler, D. H., Pluta, J. B., Kadivar, S., Craige, C. P., Gee, J. C., Avants, B., & Yushkevich, P. A. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.08.067 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Everett, J. L., Céspedes, E., Shelford, L. R., Exley, C., Collingwood, J. F., Dobson, J., van der Laan, G., Jenkins, C., Arenholz, E., & Telling, N. D. (2014) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2014.0165 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Increased Levels of Magnetic Iron Compounds in Alzheimer's Disease
Pankhurst, Q. A., Hautot, D., Khan, N., & Dobson, J. (2008) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2008-13105 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Collingwood, J. F., Chong, R. K. K., Kasama, T., Cervera-Gontard, L., Dunin-Borkowski, R. E., Perry, G., Pósfai, M., Siedlak, S. L., Simpson, E. T., Smith, M. A., et al. (2008) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2008-14211 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Amyloid β‐Protein and the Mechanism of Alzheimer's Disease
(2008) · Handbook of Clinical Neurology · doi:10.1016/s0072-9752(07)01223-7 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Cellular, synaptic, and biochemical features of resilient cognition in Alzheimer’s disease
Arnold, S. E., Louneva, N., Cao, K., Wang, L.-S., Han, L.-Y., Wolk, D. A., Negash, S., Leurgans, S. E., Schneider, J. A., Buchman, A. S., et al. (2013) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.03.004 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Bao, F., Wicklund, L., Lacor, P. N., Klein, W. L., Nordberg, A. K., & Marutle, A. (2011) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.05.003 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Antharam, V., Collingwood, J. F., Bullivant, J.-P., Davidson, M. R., Chandra, S., Mikhaylova, A., Finnegan, M. E., Batich, C., Forder, J. R., & Dobson, J. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.08.019 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Microglia as Dynamic and Essential Components of the Amyloid Hypothesis
Gandy, S., & Heppner, F. L. (2013) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.05.007 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Senile plaques do not induce susceptibility effects in T2*‐weighted MR microscopic images
Dhénain, M., Privat, N., Duyckaerts, C. J., & Jacobs, R. E. (2002) · NMR in Biomedicine · doi:10.1002/nbm.760 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Everett, J. L., Céspedes, E., Shelford, L. R., Exley, C., Collingwood, J. F., Dobson, J., van der Laan, G., Jenkins, C., Arenholz, E., & Telling, N. D. (2014) · Inorganic Chemistry · doi:10.1021/ic402406g · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Gallagher, J. J., Finnegan, M. E., Grehan, B., Dobson, J., Collingwood, J. F., & Lynch, M. A. (2012) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2011-110614 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
MRI parcellation of ex vivo medial temporal lobe
Augustinack, J. C., Magnain, C. V., Reuter, M., van der Kouwe, A. J. W., Boas, D. A., & Fischl, B. R. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.053 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Pittsburgh compound B and the postmortem diagnosis of alzheimer disease
Niedowicz, D. M., Beckett, T. L., Matveev, S., Weidner, A. M., Baig, I., Kryscio, R. J., Mendiondo, M. S., LeVine, H., Keller, J. N., & Murphy, M. P. (2012) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.23633 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
mNos2Deletion and HumanNOS2Replacement in Alzheimer Disease Models
Colton, C. A., Wilson, J. G., Everhart, A. L., Wilcock, D. M., Puoliväli, J. T., Heikkinen, T., Oksman, J., Jääskeläinen, O., Lehtimäki, K. K., Laitinen, T., et al. (2014) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1097/nen.0000000000000094 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Breaking the Code of Amyloid- β Oligomers
Lesné, S. (2013) · International Journal of Cell Biology · doi:10.1155/2013/950783 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Colton CA Wilson JG Everhart A Wilcock DM Puolivali J Heikkinen T Oksman J Jaaskelainen O Lehtimaki K Laitinen T Vartiainen N Vitek MP mNos2 deletion and human NOS2 replacement in Alzheimer disease models J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol 2014 73 752 769 25003233 PMC4131941
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Hopperton, K. E., Mohammad, D., Trépanier, M. O., Giuliano, V, & Bazinet, R. P. (2018) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2017.246 · Cited by 567 · see citing works
Chen, L.-L., Fan, Y.-G., Zhao, L.-X., Zhang, Q., & Wang, Z.-Y. (2023) · Bioorganic Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.bioorg.2022.106301 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
“Pumping iron”—how macrophages handle iron at the systemic, microenvironmental, and cellular levels
Nairz, M., Theurl, I., Swirski, F. K., & Weiss, G. (2017) · Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00424-017-1944-8 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Iron loading is a prominent feature of activated microglia in Alzheimer’s disease patients
Kenkhuis, B., Somarakis, A., de Haan, L., Dzyubachyk, O., IJsselsteijn, M. E., de Miranda, N. F. C. C., Lelieveldt, B. P. F., Dijkstra, J., van Roon-Mom, W. M. C., Höllt, T., et al. (2021) · Acta Neuropathologica Communications · doi:10.1186/s40478-021-01126-5 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Cortical iron reflects severity of Alzheimer's disease
van Duijn, S., Bulk, M., van Duinen, S. G., Nabuurs, R. J. A., van Buchem, M. A., van der Weerd, L., & Natté, R. (2017) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-161143 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Microglia and Astrocyte Function and Communication: What Do We Know in Humans?
Garland, E. F., Hartnell, I. J., & Boche, D. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.824888 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Gong, N.-J., Dibb, R., Bulk, M., van der Weerd, L., & Liu, C. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.02.019 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Senescent Microglia: The Key to the Ageing Brain?
Greenwood, E. K., & Brown, D. R. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22094402 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Iron Deposition Leads to Hyperphosphorylation of Tau and Disruption of Insulin Signaling
Wan, W., Cao, L., Kalionis, B., Murthi, P., Xia, S., & Guan, Y. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2019.00607 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Shen, Z., Bao, X., & Wang, R. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00314 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Dudeffant, C., Vandesquille, M., Herbert, K., Garin, C. M., Alves, S., Blanchard, V., Comoy, E. E., Petit, F., & Dhenain, M. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-05285-1 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Santin, M. D., Vandenberghe, M. E., Herard, A.-S., Pradier, L., Cohen, C., Debeir, T., Delzescaux, T., Rooney, T., & Dhenain, M. (2016) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2016.00055 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Nir, T. M., Zhu, A. H., Gari, I. B., Dixon, D., Islam, T., Villalon-Reina, J. E., Medland, S. E., Thompson, P. M., & Jahanshad, N. (2021) · Biocomputing 2022 · doi:10.1142/9789811250477_0012 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
- Authors
- Zeineh, M. M., Chen, Y., Kitzler, H. H., Hammond, R., Vogel, H., & Rutt, B. K.
- Affiliations
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- Western University (CA)
- University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus (DE)
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Zeineh, Michael M.
- Venue
- Neurobiology of Aging
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-09
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 2483-2500
- ISSN
- 0197-4580 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4839298
- OpenAlex
- W1819889766
- Cited by
- 151
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 7.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Neurobiology of Aging (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (P41EB015891)
- National Center for Research Resources (S10RR026351)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Keywords
- Alzheimer's disease, microglia, iron, hippocampus, subiculum, neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, amyloid-beta, tau protein, ultra-high resolution MRI, 7T MRI, iron quantification, histopathological correlation
- MeSH terms
- CD163 Antigen, Acetylcholinesterase, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Alzheimer Disease, Amyloid, Female, Hippocampus, Humans, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Iron, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Myelin Sheath, Postmortem Changes, Receptors, Cell Surface, Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic, Antigens, CD, tau Proteins, Microglia
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
