The DOI matches its Crossref record; 48 of the 48 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 45 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency
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TL;DR
This experiment compared worked examples with conventional problem solving for younger and older adults learning a water-jug task. Older adults showed a larger efficiency advantage from worked examples, using less time and lower cognitive load while maintaining comparable performance, but the predicted stronger benefit for far transfer was not found.
Key findings
- Older participants in the worked-examples condition reported lower subjective cognitive load (M = 3.19, SD = 1.71) than those solving conventional problems (M = 4.79, SD = 2.16), and spent less training time per problem (81.24 s vs. 206.58 s). Near-transfer performance was similar (.97 vs. .95), while far-transfer performance was numerically higher (.55 vs. .40), though training format had no significant performance effect.
- The Age Group × Training Format interactions were significant for training efficiency, F(1, 50) = 5.45, p < .05; subjective cognitive load, F(1, 50) = 6.94, p < .05; and training time, F(1, 50) = 15.73, p < .001, indicating that older adults benefited disproportionately from worked examples.
- Younger adults did not benefit from worked examples: their mean training efficiency was lower in the worked-examples condition (0.55) than in the conventional-problems condition (0.86), and their subjective cognitive load was higher (2.77 vs. 2.22), although both efficiencies were positive.
- Hypothesis 2 was not supported: the Age Group × Training Format × Transfer Distance interaction for training efficiency was not significant, F(1, 49) = 0.10, p > .05, although separate Age Group × Training Format interactions were significant for near transfer, F(1, 50) = 6.91, p < .05, and far transfer, F(1, 49) = 8.20, p < .01.
Methods
- The design was a 2 × 2 between-groups experiment with Age Group (young vs. old) and Training Format (conventional problems vs. worked examples), plus a within-groups factor of Transfer Distance (near vs. far). N = 54: 30 psychology students aged 18–30 (median 19.50) and 24 older adults aged 61–76 (median 66.00) recruited from the Maastricht Aging Study pool; participants were randomly assigned to conditions.
- Participants completed a computerized water-jug task on a touch screen. Training consisted of four problems either solved conventionally or studied as worked examples; the transfer test had 23 problems, with 11 classified as near transfer and 12 as far transfer. Measures included a shortened Groningen intelligence test, a computation-span test, a 9-point subjective cognitive-load scale, training time, and proportion of solved problems.
- Training efficiency was calculated using Paas and Van Merriënboer’s z-score procedure combining mental effort and performance. ANOVAs were run on control variables, training time, cognitive load, performance, and efficiency, with transfer distance included for efficiency.
Limitations
- The paper states that worked examples did not significantly improve performance in either age group, contrary to earlier research. It suggests the contrast between conditions may have been too weak, older adults’ far-transfer scores had greater variability, the near-transfer problems may already have been too complex for older participants, and the young may have reached a ceiling on the task.
- The paper also states that Hypothesis 2 was not supported because the older adults’ worked-example advantage did not differ between near and far transfer.
- Evident from the text: the sample was small, especially the older group (n = 24), and one older participant did not reach the far-transfer section, producing unequal degrees of freedom. The study used a single task domain and a single subjective load measure, and the young participants’ task may have been too easy to reveal training-format effects.
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Claims the paper makes
23 Own result · 20 No full text of the sources · 19 Own interpretation · 2 Sources not found · 2 Not checked yet · 1 Partly supported · 1 Own method · 1 No basis given · accuracy not yet measured
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As predicted, the results show that -with respect to the elderlythe efficiency of studying worked examples is higher than the efficiency of solving conventional problems in that less training time and cognitive load leads to a comparable level of performance.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > Abstract
plaindirectn = 54- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Their mean scores even suggest a slight negative effect of worked examples on training efficiency.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The absence of a significant interaction between age group, training format, and transfer distance with respect to training efficiency is not in line with Hypothesis 2.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not surprisingly, there is a huge performance difference between the age groups.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.2. Training efficiency
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, computation spans differed significantly between the age groups, F(1, 50)=28.40,MSE=1.45,pϽ0.001.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.1. IQ and computation span
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With regard to the elderly, Subject Cognitive Load is substantially lower in the Worked Examples condition than in the Conventional Problems condition.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.2. Training efficiency
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, the standard deviations of the far-transfer scores were substantially greater for the elderly than for the young (see Table 1).”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is remarkable, however, that the mean IQ score of the elderly participants (M=128.67,SD=9.47) was almost 10 points higher than the mean IQ score of the young participants (M=119.47,SD=8.70),F(1, 50)=13.66,MSE=82.60,p=0.001.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.1. IQ and computation span
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is also a significant interaction between Age Group and Training Format, F(1, 50)=15.73,pϽ0.001.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.3. Training time
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A rather peculiar finding is that the young did not profit from the worked examples used in this study.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 13
- It may state two separate claims as one. 30
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The similarity between the interaction patterns of cognitive load and training time furthermore suggests that training time might as well be used as a component in calculating training efficiency (see Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002).”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In Results and Discussion, the paper reports instruction-time and mental-load results for the same instructional conditions. It calculates instructional efficiency from performance and mental-load ratings, but the available passages do not establish that similar interaction patterns justify using training time in that calculation. (LLM, conf=0.77)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Within the age groups and between the training conditions, there were no significant intelligence differences.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.1. IQ and computation span
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In fact, the employed worked examples were not effective enough to evoke a significant performance enhancement in either age group, which is contrary to previous research (Paas, 1992;Paas & Van Merrie ¨nboer, 1994b;Pillay, 1994;Ward & Sweller, 1990).”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“More than that, the interaction between Age Group and Training Format, F(1, 50)=6.94,MSE=2.23,pϽ0.05, suggests a disproportional 'decrease' in SCL for the elderly participants.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.2. Training efficiency
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The analysis of variance reveals an effect of Age Group, F(1, 50)=36.27,MSE=0.92,pϽ0.001, as well as an interaction between Age Group and Training Format, F(1, 50)=5.45,pϽ0.05, which is in accordance with Hypothesis 1.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.2. Training efficiency
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, there is an effect of Age Group, F(1, 50)=13.43,p=.001, but no effect of Training Format, F(1, 50)=1.66,pϾ0.05.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.2. Training efficiency
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there is neither an effect of Training Format nor an interaction (see Table 2).”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.2. Training efficiency
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there is no interaction between Age Group, Training Format, and Transfer Distance, F(1, 49)=0.10,MSE=0.19,pϾ0.05, which is not in line with Hypothesis 2.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.2. Training efficiency
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With respect to Computation Span, there were no differences within the age groups and between the training conditions.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.1. IQ and computation span
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As can be seen in Fig. 4, the efficiencies of both training formats are positive for the young participants and negative for the elderly participants.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.2. Training efficiency
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This holds for both Near-Transfer Performance, F(1, 50)=10.98,MSE=.00, pϽ0.01, and Far-Transfer Performance, F(1, 49)=44.09,MSE=.05, pϽ0.001.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.2. Training efficiency
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where the young participants had a mean score of 4.97 (SD=1.33), the elderly scored no more than 3.21 (SD=0.98).”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.1. IQ and computation span
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, both worked examples and conventional problems required relatively little cognitive load and led to almost the same performance level, which is reflected by the positive efficiency scores.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, contrary to the young participants, for whom the Worked Examples condition appears to be relatively inefficient, the elderly display a substantial efficiency 'gain' in the Worked Examples condition relative to the Conventional Problems condition, the latter of which remains highly inefficient.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.2. Training efficiency
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Performance was especially poorer in the more complex far-transfer domain, which is a confirmation of earlier research findings (Czaja & Sharit, 1993;Gilinsky & Judd, 1994;Lorsbach & Simpson, 1988).”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The old participants were less efficient, performed poorer, and showed higher levels of cognitive load and training time than the young (see Tables 1 and 2).”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The analysis of variance reveals main effects for the factors Age Group, F(1, 50)=65.73,MSE=2408.00,pϽ0.001, and Training Format F(1, 50)=28.72,pϽ0.001.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.3. Training time
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Working-memory abilities were assessed with Salthouse and Babcock's (1991) computation-span test, which is a variant of the well-known reading-span test (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980).”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 5.2.2. Computation-span test
What the sources say
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“That is, a training format is considered efficient if a relatively low mental effort results in a relatively high performance, whereas a training format is considered inefficient if a relatively high mental effort results in a relatively low performance.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 4. Worked examples versus conventional problems
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Paas & Van Merrienboer, 1993 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In sum, CLT-based training formats optimize learning by making an efficient use of the available cognitive capacity, thereby directing the learner to the essentials of the subject matter and stimulating the construction of cognitive schemata.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 3. Implications of CLT for elderly learners
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“In a nutshell, CLT claims that an optimal use of working memory requires a maximum number of mental operations that directly contribute to the learning process and a minimum number of operations that do not contribute to the learning process.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to Paas and Van Merrie ¨nboer (1993), the ratio between invested mental effort and test performance can be interpreted as the efficiency of a training format.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 4. Worked examples versus conventional problems
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Paas & Van Merrienboer, 1993 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Luch-ins' (1942) classical water-jug problem appeared to meet these requirements.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 5.2.4. Task domain
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Luchins, 1942 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants from both groups were randomly assigned to the experimental conditions (n=15 for the young; n=12 for the elderly).”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 5.1. Participants
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“CLT is directly concerned with the limits of working memory.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“To check the intellectual comparability of the experimental groups, a shortened version of the Groningen intelligence test (GIT; Luteijn & Van der Ploeg, 1983;Snijders & Verhage, 1962) was administered.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 5.2.1. Intelligence test
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Luteijn & Van der Ploeg, 1983
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Snijders & Verhage, 1962
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“A third decline concerns the ability to inhibit irrelevant or distracting information (Allen, Madden, Groth, & Crozier, 1992;Hasher & Zacks, 1988), which is likely to withhold older people from the proper processing of information that is relevant for the task at hand.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“If this process recurs, the result is an accumulation of schemata and a lowering of the perceived task complexity (Van Gerven, Paas, Van Merrie ¨nboer, & Schmidt, 2000).”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 3. Implications of CLT for elderly learners
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Van Gerven et al., 2000 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“First, due to a reduction of the working-memory capacity (Salthouse & Babcock, 1991;Wingfield, Stine, Lahar, & Aberdeen, 1988), less information elements can be processed, which undermines comprehension and learning of complex material.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For novices, who have not yet acquired extensive cognitive schemata, problem solving turns out to be a rather ineffective means of learning, because it imposes an extremely high extraneous cognitive load (Sweller, 1988), whereas the level of germane cognitive load remains relatively low.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 4. Worked examples versus conventional problems
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweller, 1988 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A 9-point symmetrical category scale was used as a subjective cognitive-load (SCL) measure (after Paas, Van Merrie ¨nboer, & Adam, 1994).”
- Also stated in: § 5.2.3. Subjective cognitive-load scale · boosted
“Paas and Van Merrie ¨nboer (1994b) evaluated the scale as a highly reliable and sensitive instrument for the assessment of cognitive load (a=.82).”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 5.2.3. Subjective cognitive-load scale
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Paas, Van Merrienboer, & Adam, 1994 source
- Not matchedcites Paas & Van Merrienboer, 1994b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § 5.2.3. Subjective cognitive-load scale · boosted
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Second, the overall processing speed decreases (Cerella, 1990;Fisk & Warr, 1996;Myerson, Hale, Wagstaff, Poon, & Smith, 1990;Salthouse 1993Salthouse , 1996)), which hinders the simultaneous activation of mutually referring information elements.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“With respect to the elderly, a possible explanation for this finding is the frequently observed phenomenon that old adults display far more statistical variance than young adults on various cognitive tasks (Anstey, Stankov, & Lord, 1993), so that subtle differences between conditions tend to get overshadowed.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Anstey, Stankov, & Lord, 1993 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“According to CLT, studying worked examples is a more efficient means of training complex skills than solving conventional problems.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > Abstract
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“These results are in accordance with Salthouse and Babcock's (1991) study, in which a gradual age-related decrease of computation-span scores was found.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.1. IQ and computation span
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Salthouse and Babcock's (1991) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The interaction pattern, depicted in Fig. 5, suggests that the elderly participants are disproportionally favored when studying worked examples, which supports Hypothesis 1.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 6.3. Training time
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the nearand far-transfer problems reflected different levels of complexity, the complexity of the near-transfer problems could have been already that high that no differential effects were obtained.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It seems that the predicted interaction was not obtained, because the near-transfer problems, which were supposed to be rather simple, were in fact experienced as rather complex by the elderly.”
§ Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency > 7. Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The near-transfer problems were expected to be rather simple.
The authors state this as an assumption.
To optimize the acquisition of complex material in elderly people, information should be presented in a highly efficient manner.
“this brings us to the assumption that to optimize the acquisition of complex material in elderly people information should be presented in a highly efficient manner.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
CLT-based training accommodates the cognitive abilities of elderly persons particularly well.
“Since these limits are especially evident in elderly persons, it is assumed that CLT-based training accommodates the cognitive abilities of this group particularly well.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The cognitive capacity of elderly people is smaller than the cognitive capacity of young people.
“The framework assumes that the cognitive capacity of elderly people is smaller than the cognitive capacity of young people, so that any gain in cognitive capacity caused by a lowering of extraneous load is proportionally larger for the elderly than for the young.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Any gain in cognitive capacity caused by a lowering of extraneous load is proportionally larger for the elderly than for the young.
“The framework assumes that the cognitive capacity of elderly people is smaller than the cognitive capacity of young people, so that any gain in cognitive capacity caused by a lowering of extraneous load is proportionally larger for the elderly than for the young.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Any increase of germane cognitive load is proportionally larger for the elderly than for the young.
“The same holds for any increase of germane cognitive load.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Compared to young people, the elderly have a much richer and more integrated body of general and specific knowledge at their disposal.
“It is true that, compared to young people, the elderly have a much richer and more integrated body of general and, depending on their professional background, specific knowledge at their disposal.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The near-transfer problems were expected to be rather simple.
“the near-transfer problems, which were supposed to be rather simple, were in fact experienced as rather complex by the elderly”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Indeed, many experiments supported the counterintuitive prediction that studying worked-out examples facilitates schema construction and transfer performance more than actually solving the equivalent problems does (van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”
From Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning (2003) · cites this paper as van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002
In the citing paper
“When studies like the one conducted by Denessen et al. (2008) would also incorporate cognitive load measures (e.g., the unidimensional nine-point symmetrical mental effort rating scale [Paas 1992], heart-rate variability [Paas and Van Merriënboer 1994], taskevoked pupillary responses [Van Gerven et al. 2002], or responses to secondary tasks [Marcus et al. 1996]), it would become possible to”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as Van Gerven et al. 2002
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(1, 50) = 13.43reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1, 50)=13.43,p = .001”
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Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
Cites
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
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Self-citationThe processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
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“Second, the overall processing speed decreases (Cerella, 1990; Fisk & Warr, 1996; Myerson, Hale, Wagstaff, Poon, & Smith, 1990; Salthouse 1993, 1996), which hinders the simultaneous activation of mutually referring information elements.”
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Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design
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“Schemata enable a person to categorize and solve problems in a specific domain (Sweller, 1994).”
BackgroundWorking memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view
Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1988) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60041-9 · Cited by 3,456
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Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Jolles, J., Houx, P. J., Van Boxtel, M. P. J., & Ponds, R. W. H. M. (Eds.). (1995). The Maastricht aging study: determinants of cognitive aging. Maastricht, The Netherlands: Neuropsych Publishers.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Cognitive Load Measurement as a Means to Advance Cognitive Load Theory
Paas, F., Tuovinen, J. E., Tabbers, H., & Van Gerven, P. W. M. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_8 · Cited by 2,527
Self-citationCognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-005-3951-0 · Cited by 2,206
“Indeed, the results of recent studies indicate that instruction based on CLT is relatively more effective for older learners than for younger learners (Paas et al., 2001; van Gerven et al., 2002, 2003).”
BackgroundCognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought
de Jong, T. (2010) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9110-0 · Cited by 1,180
Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning
van Merrienboer, J. J. G., Kirschner, P. A., & Kester, L. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_2 · Cited by 857
“…experiments supported the counterintuitive prediction that studying worked-out examples facilitates schema construction and transfer performance more than actually solving the equivalent problems does (van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; alsoseeSweller etal., 1998, for anoverview).”
Self-citationAssimilating complex information
Pollock, E., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2002) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00016-0 · Cited by 692
Instructional Efficiency: Revisiting the Original Construct in Educational Research
van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2008) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701756248 · Cited by 473
“For example, even though most authors simply use the term instructional efficiency , the adapted measure has also been called “training efficiency” (eg, Salden, Paas, Broers, & Van Merrienboer, 2004 ; Van Gerven, Paas, Van Merrienboer, & Schmidt, 2002 ), which seems indeed more accurate for the adapted measure and hel…”
BackgroundSelf-citationChoi, H.-H., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9262-6 · Cited by 413
“With regard to the worked example effect (Paas and Van Merriënboer 1994b; Van Gerven et al. 2002), which refers to the finding that novice students learn less from solving conventional problems than from studying equivalent worked out problem solutions, it would be interesting to study whether…”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citationExample-Based Learning: Integrating Cognitive and Social-Cognitive Research Perspectives
van Gog, T., & Rummel, N. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9134-7 · Cited by 426
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Schuurman, J. G., de Croock, M. B. M., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (2002) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00020-2 · Cited by 298
“Jelsma and Bijlstra (1988) studied contextual interference for the training of complex cognitive skills, in particular, procedural training of troubleshooting skills.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMemory load and the cognitive pupillary response in aging
Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G. (2004) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2003.00148.x · Cited by 292
Self-citationEffects of worked examples, example-problem, and problem-example pairs on novices’ learning
van Gog, T., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2011) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.004 · Cited by 283
“…takes away a potential criticism (e.g., Koedinger & Aleven, 2007) of previous studies on the worked example effect in which examples only (e.g., Van Gerven et al., 2002; Van Gog et al., 2006) or example-problem pairs (e.g., Cooper & Sweller, 1987; Kalyuga et al., 2001; Sweller & Cooper, 1985) were…”
ResultSelf-citationThe shaky ground beneath the CEFR: Quantitative and qualitative dimensions of language proficiency
Hulstijn, J. (2007) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2007.00627_5.x · Cited by 262
“Van Gelderen, A., Schoonen, R., De Glopper, K., Hulstijn, J., Simis, A., Snellings, P., & Stevenson, M. (2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialCognitive Load Theory: A Broader View on the Role of Memory in Learning and Education
PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Ayres, P. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9263-5 · Cited by 225
“…Kalyuga et al. 1999), and to a lesser extent, on manipulating combinations of aspects of the learning task and learner characteristics, such as prior knowledge (the expertise-reversal effect; e.g., Kalyuga 2007; Kalyuga et al. 2003, 2012) and age (Paas et al. 2001; Van Gerven et al. 2002; 2004).”
BackgroundSelf-citationJanssen, J., Kirschner, F., Erkens, G., Kirschner, P. A., & Paas, F. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9131-x · Cited by 180
“When studies like the one conducted by Denessen et al .( 2008) would also incorporate cognitive load measures (e.g., the unidimensional nine-point symmetrical mental effort rating scale [Paas 1992], heart-rate variability [Paas and Van Merrienboer 1994], taskevoked pupillary responses [ Van Gerven et al. 2002 ], or re…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationThe influence of self-efficacy and working memory capacity on problem-solving efficiency
Hoffman, B. H., & Schraw, G. J. (2008) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2008.08.001 · Cited by 180
Exploring Multidimensional Approaches to the Efficiency of Instructional Conditions
Tuovinen, J. E., & Paas, F. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021813.24669.62 · Cited by 134
Self-citationCognitive load theory: more food for thought
Moreno, R. (2010) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9122-9 · Cited by 132
The efficiency of multimedia learning into old age
Gerven, P. W. M. V., PAAS, F. G. W. C., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Hendriks, M., & Schmidt, H. G. (2003) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709903322591208 · Cited by 126
“The goal could be reached by adequately pouring working jugs into each other and strategically making use of the residuals (for more details, see Van Gerven et al., 2002).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationOlder Adults and Technology-Based Instruction: Optimizing Learning Outcomes and Transfer
Wolfson, N., Cavanagh, T. M., & Kraiger, K. (2013) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2012.0056 · Cited by 130
“Van Gerven, Paas, Van Merriënboer, and Schmidt (2002) found that worked examples were significantly more beneficial for older learners compared to younger learners, presumably because they accommodate age-related cognitive deficits such as reduced WM. Worked examples impose less load on learners by…”
Gegenfurtner, A., & Vauras, M. (2012) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.09.003 · Cited by 129
Just-in-time information presentation and the acquisition of complex cognitive skills
Kester, L., Kirschner, P. A., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Baumer, A. (2001) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(01)00011-5 · Cited by 119
Self-citationTraining and employee development for improved performance.
Brown, K. G., & Sitzmann, T. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12170-016 · Cited by 125
McLaren, B. M., van Gog, T., Ganoe, C. H., Karabinos, M., & Yaron, D. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.038 · Cited by 117
Conditions and effects of example elaboration
Stark, R., Mandl, H., Gruber, H., & Renkl, A. (2002) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00015-9 · Cited by 105
“The concept of tolerance of ambiguity was used by Frenkel-Brunswik (1949) in order to describe a personal characteristic that is based on relatively rigid reactions”
MethodA Test of the Testing Effect: Acquiring Problem‐Solving Skills From Worked Examples
van Gog, T., & Kester, L. (2012) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12002 · Cited by 107
Chevalier, A., & Kicka, M. (2006) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2006.06.002 · Cited by 96
“…writing or design, and it is used more and more today (see, e.g., Kellogg, 1987, 1994; Levy and Ransdell, 1995; Marcus et al., 1996; Sweller, 1999; van Gerven et al., 2002; Bonnardel and Piolat, 2003; Brünken et al., 2003) because it is a reliable technique, and because it takes into account…”
MethodInstructional benefits of spoken words: A review of cognitive load factors
Kalyuga, S. (2012) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2011.12.002 · Cited by 93
Beckmann, J. F. (2010) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.02.024 · Cited by 89
Paas, F., Camp, G., & Rikers, R. (2001) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.181 · Cited by 87
Self-citationUsing Eye Tracking to Expose Cognitive Processes in Understanding Conceptual Models1
Bera, P., Soffer, P., & Parsons, J. (2019) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.25300/misq/2019/14163 · Cited by 88
Just-in-time, schematic supportive information presentation during cognitive skill acquisition
Kester, L., Lehnen, C., Gerven, P. W. M. V., & Kirschner, P. A. (2005) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.01.008 · Cited by 82
“Van Gerven, Paas, van Merrienboer, & Schmidt, 2002 ) or completion tasks (van Merrienboer,”
Self-citationLeahy, W., Hanham, J., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9296-4 · Cited by 77
Schvartz, K. C., Chatterjee, M., & Gordon-Salant, S. M. (2008) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.2997434 · Cited by 73
van Gog, T., Kester, L., Dirkx, K., Hoogerheide, V., Boerboom, J., & Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9297-3 · Cited by 75
“…is immediately followed by an isomorphic problem to solve (e.g., Carroll 1994; Cooper and Sweller 1987; Kalyuga et al. 2001; Sweller and Cooper 1985), other studies compared problem-solving practice to example study only (e.g., Nievelstein et al. 2013; Van Gerven et al. 2002; Van Gog et al. 2006).”
ResultWhen Is It Best to Learn with All Worked Examples?
McLaren, B. M., & Isotani, S. (2011) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-21869-9_30 · Cited by 63
“Despite some (but limited) evidence that all examples can be more effective for learning and more efficient in mental effort, at least as compared to all untutored problem solving [9, 10], our theory was that all examples might be faster than examples/tutored problems but likely at the expense of careful study and rob…”
ResultBaars, M., van Gog, T., de Bruin, A. B. H., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2014) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3008 · Cited by 65
Self-citationLearning How to Solve Problems by Studying Examples
van Gog, T., Rummel, N., & Renkl, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235631.009 · Cited by 60
Minkley, N., Xu, K. M., & Krell, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.632907 · Cited by 65
Cognitive Aging and Computer-Based Instructional Design: Where Do We Go From Here?
Gerven, P. W. M. V., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Tabbers, H. K. (2006) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9005-4 · Cited by 63
“This residual can be used for further operations.1 Van Gerven et al. (2002) trained young and older participants to use a number of basic strategies for solving the water-jug problem by presenting them with worked examples of the type shown in Fig.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationEnhancing understandability of process models through cultural-dependent color adjustments
Kummer, T., Recker, J., & Mendling, J. (2016) · Decision Support Systems · doi:10.1016/j.dss.2016.04.004 · Cited by 55
Burton, M., Collins, K., Lifford, K., et al. (2014) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.3735 · Cited by 54
Baars, M., van Gog, T., de Bruin, A. B. H., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2016) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2016.1150419 · Cited by 63
Self-citationOnline Learners’ Reading Ability Detection Based on Eye-Tracking Sensors
Zhan, Z., Zhang, L., Hu, M. Y., & Fong, P. S. W. (2016) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s16091457 · Cited by 53
“found that mean pupil diameter is a useful event-related measure of cognitive load in research on education and learning, especially for young adults [11].”
BackgroundExplorations in Learning and the Brain
de Jong, T., van Gog, T., Jenks, K., Manlove, S., van Hell, J. G., Jolles, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., van Leeuwen, T. H., & Boschloo, A. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-89512-3 · Cited by 55
Self-citationSupporting transfer of training : effects of the supervisor
Nijman, D. J. J. M. (2004) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 49
The effects of aging on the use of handheld augmented reality in a route planning task
Peleg-Adler, R., Lanir, J., & Korman, M. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.12.003 · Cited by 44
Computer-based training for safety: Comparing methods with older and younger workers
Wallen, E. S., & Mulloy, K. B. (2006) · Journal of Safety Research · doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2006.08.003 · Cited by 46
Effects of worked examples in a primary school mathematics curriculum
van Loon-Hillen, N., van Gog, T., & Brand‐Gruwel, S. (2010) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494821003755510 · Cited by 45
“Van Gerven, Paas, Van Merrienboer, & Schmidt, 2002 ; Van Gog et al, 2006 , 2008 ), whereas others have used example-problem pairs, arguing that this would be more motivating for students (e.”
BackgroundMind Mapping Training’s Effects on Reading Ability: Detection Based on Eye Tracking Sensors
Liu, T., & Yuizono, T. (2020) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s20164422 · Cited by 43
“In general, the greater the effort of cognitive processing is, the greater the memory load is, and thus the greater the pupil diameter will be [34].”
BackgroundInfluentialEffects of different sequences of examples and problems on motivation and learning
van Harsel, M., Hoogerheide, V., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & van Gog, T. (2019) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.03.005 · Cited by 44
Two instructional aids to optimise processing and learning from instructional explanations
Roelle, J., Berthold, K., & Renkl, A. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9277-2 · Cited by 37
“This measure refers to the efficiency of learning processes (Van Gog and Paas 2008) and has also been referred to as training efficiency (Van Gerven et al. 2002).”
BackgroundThe Cognitive Aging Principle in Multimedia Learning
PAAS, F. G. W. C., Gerven, P. W. M. V., & Tabbers, H. K. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.023 · Cited by 40
Self-citationEffects of Gestures on Older Adults' Learning from Video‐based Models
Ouwehand, K., van Gog, T., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2014) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3097 · Cited by 36
Self-citationHuang, X. (2016) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2015.1121154 · Cited by 38
Cognitive Load Theory, Element Interactivity, and the Testing and Reverse Testing Effects
Hanham, J., Leahy, W., & Sweller, J. (2017) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3324 · Cited by 36
The Flipped Classroom: instructional efficency and impact of achievement and cognitive load levels,
Turan, Z., & Göktaş, Y. (2016) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · doi:10.20368/1971-8829/1122 · Cited by 39
“Based on the Cognitive Load Theory, efficient instruction should have a small extraneous load and an optimized germane load (van Gerven et al., 2002).”
MethodDecision support systems for human resource training and development
Chatzimouratidis, A. I., Theotokas, I., & Lagoudis, I. N. (2011) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2011.561235 · Cited by 33
“Efficiency is the primary criterion for the evaluation of training methods and techniques, and it is incorporated in most of the related surveys (Dossett and Hulvershorn 1983 ; Van Gerven, Paas, Van Merrienboer and Schmidt 2002 ; Salden, Paas and Van Merrienboer 2006 ; Expertus 2008 ).”
BackgroundDarejeh, A., Marcus, N., & Sweller, J. (2021) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-021-10024-5 · Cited by 29
The Impact of Persistent Pain on Working Memory and Learning
Smith, A. K., & Ayres, P. (2013) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9247-x · Cited by 29
“…shown to experience higher levels of cognitive load than younger participants (van Gerven et al. 2006), and to receive greater benefit than younger participants from strategies that reduce this load, through worked examples (see van Gerven et al. 2002) and goal-free problems (see Paas et al. 2001).”
BackgroundSchwaighofer, M., Bühner, M., & Fischer, F. (2016) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000115 · Cited by 27
Principles for Designing Effective and Efficient Training of Complex Cognitive Skills
PAAS, F. G. W. C., & van Gog, T. (2009) · Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics · doi:10.1518/155723409x448053 · Cited by 31
Self-citationLearner and information characteristics in the design of powerful learning environments
PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Kester, L. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1244 · Cited by 27
Self-citationde Looper, M., Damman, O. C., Smets, E. M. A., Timmermans, D. R. M., & van Weert, J. C. M. (2020) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2020.1840674 · Cited by 24
“This is especially important for older adults taking into account their age-related cognitive declines (Van Gerven et al., 2002).”
BackgroundDynamics of cognitive load theory: A model-based approach
Sawicka, A. (2007) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.03.007 · Cited by 25
“By placing the arrows either to the Worked examples fl › › fl , Paas and van Merriënboer (1994), Sweller et al. (1998), van Gerven et al. (2002), van Gog et al. (2006) Kalyuga et al. (2001a, 2001b), Sweller et al. (1998) Ayres, 2006 Completion problems fl › , Sweller et al. (1998), van…”
MethodMelo, M. (2017) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.12973/iji.2018.1118a · Cited by 26
van den Berge, K., van Gog, T., Mamede, S., Schmidt, H. G., van Saase, J. L. C. M., & Rikers, R. M. J. P. (2011) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2011.554422 · Cited by 19
“Van Gerven, Paas, Van Merrienboer, & Schmidt, 2002 ; Van Gog, Paas, & Van Merrienboer, 2006 ).”
Self-citationEffects of game-based learning supports on students’ math performance and perceived game flow
Pan, Y., & Ke, F. (2023) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10183-z · Cited by 40
“In summary, despite the belief that modeling helps with schema construction (van Gerven et al., 2002), how to design and use modeling as a learning support in GBL environments is still limited, inconsistent and inconclusive (Mayer, 2011; Wouters, 2017).”
BackgroundApplying Cognitive Load Theory to the Design of Online Learning.
Burkes, K. M. E. (2007) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc3698 · Cited by 23
Correlates of Cognitive Load in Surrogate Decision Makers of the Critically III
Pignatiello, G. A., & Hickman, R. L. (2018) · Western Journal of Nursing Research · doi:10.1177/0193945918807898 · Cited by 25
Information flow and cognition affect each other: Evidence from digital learning
Sharma, K., Mangaroska, K., van Berkel, N., Giannakos, M. N., & Kostakos, V. (2020) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2020.102549 · Cited by 27
“Furthermore, on the one hand, in a passive task (e.g., watching a video) most of the information is received by the user and there is seldom a reciprocal of the information from the user’s end (the reciprocity is achieved via the user feedback in videos) (Van Gerven et al., 2002).”
BackgroundThe Influence of Cognitive Load on Transfer With Error Prevention Training Methods
Hutchins, S., Wickens, C. D., Carolan, T. F., & Cumming, J. M. (2013) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720812469985 · Cited by 25
When seeing what's wrong makes you right: The effect of erroneous examples on 3D diagram learning
Jaeger, A. J., Marzano, J. A., & Shipley, T. F. (2020) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3671 · Cited by 19
“Gerven et al., 2002) and suggests that in the context of real classrooms where time is often very limited, erroneous examples may be a more useful tool for instructors.”
MethodInteractive Multimedia Module with Pedagogical Agents: Formative Evaluation
Lee, T. T., & Osman, K. (2012) · International Education Studies · doi:10.5539/ies.v5n6p50 · Cited by 21
Role ambiguity: Older workers in the demographic transition
(2004) · doi:10.1007/s12126-996-1003-9 · Cited by 20
“Secondly, recent advances in studying cognition in older adults demonstrate that older people can learn complex new skills, even if they make take longer to learn them (Maurer, 2001; Ranzijn, 2002; Salthouse & Maurer, 1996; Van Gerven et al., 2002 ).”
BackgroundUsing Curriculum-Based Assessment in Consultation: A Review of Three Levels of Research
Burns, M. K. (2004) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1207/s1532768xjepc1501_3 · Cited by 20
“Further, Zins and Erchul (2002) recommended clarifying the problem, analyzing the problem, and exploring and selecting interventions as steps in a consultative problem-solving process. These are the stages in which CBA could benefit most consultative approaches that address academic problems. In fact, Dettmer, Thursto…”
BackgroundPrior schemata transfer as an account for assessing the intuitive use of new technology
Fischer, S., Itoh, M., & Inagaki, T. (2014) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2014.05.010 · Cited by 19
“…latter operation is difficult to achieve with the few resources left over from means-end analysis (Sweller, 1988, 1994; Sweller and Levine, 1982; Van Gerven et al., 2002), meaning that states for which users should induce new schemata remain resource-demanding at later encounters (Tuovinen and…”
BackgroundLearners in a Changing Learning Landscape: Reflections from an Instructional Design Perspective
van Merriänboer, J. J. G., & Slavi Stoyanov, A. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8299-3_4 · Cited by 19
“A first set of studies tested this hypothesis by comparing learning by studying worked examples with learning by solving conventional problems ( Van Gerven, Paas, Van Merrienboer, & Schmidt, 2002 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAlmenara, J. C., & Tena, R. R. (2020) · Innoeduca International Journal of Technology and Educational Innovation · doi:10.24310/innoeduca.2020.v6i1.7507 · Cited by 19
“Diferentes propuestas de instrumentos han sido realizadas por diferentes autores (Korbach et al., 2018; Naismith et al., 2015; Sweller et al., 2010; Van Gerven et al., 2002; Zumbach y Mohraz, 2008).”
BackgroundApplication of Metacognitive Planning Scaffolding for the Cultivation of Computational Thinking
Zhou, Y., Chai, C. S., Li, X., Ma, C., Li, B., Yu, D., & Liang, J. (2023) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331231160294 · Cited by 25
Subramani, M., Wagle, M., Ray, G., & Gupta, A. (2021) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.25300/misq/2021/15635 · Cited by 22
Measuring Cognitive Load: A Comparison of Self-Report and Physiological Methods.
Joseph, S. S. (2013) · ProQuest LLC eBooks · Cited by 18
Gregory, J. P., & Greenway, T. S. (2016) · Religion Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2016.1196234 · Cited by 16
Bigot, L. L., Jamet, E., Rouet, J., & Amiel, V. (2006) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.10.006 · Cited by 21
Learners in a Changing Learning Landscape
Visser, J., & Visser, M. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8299-3 · Cited by 29
Anderson, S. Y. C., Ong, W. S. Y., & Momsen, J. L. (2020) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c9rp00252a · Cited by 20
Bioinformatics-Based Adaptive System towards Real-Time Dynamic E-learning Content Personalization
Mwambe, O. O., Tan, P. X., & Kamioka, E. (2020) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci10020042 · Cited by 16
“Pupil size dilation is not only a useful eventrelated measure of cognitive work load [38] but also provides a reliable estimate of cognitive work load for time-locked event-related tasks [39,40].”
BackgroundDavenport, M. K., Young, C. K., Kim, M. H., Gilberto, J. M., & Beier, M. E. (2022) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12535 · Cited by 18
Weinert, T., Billert, M. S., de Gafenco, M. T., Janson, A., & Leimeister, J. M. (2022) · Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) · doi:10.1007/s10606-021-09420-5 · Cited by 19
Application to learning and teaching
Harris, K. R., Graham, S. W., & Urdan, T. (2012) · American Psychological Association eBooks · Cited by 15
Zulu, E., Haupt, T. C., & Tramontin, V. (2018) · Problems of Education in the 21st Century · doi:10.33225/pec/18.76.864 · Cited by 14
Investigating the Modality and Redundancy Effects for Learners with Persistent Pain
Smith, A. K., & Ayres, P. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9293-z · Cited by 14
“By simultaneously listening to explanatory text and observing related diagrams, it is argued that extraneous load is lowered (see Van Merriënboer and Sweller 2005) by reducing the amount of searching and matching required, as well as by engaging both working memory processing channels simultaneously (auditory and spat…”
MethodTiming of information presentation and the acquisition of complex skills
Kester, L. (2003) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 13
Criterion-Related Validity of Measuring Sight-Word Acquisition with Curriculum-Based Assessment
Burns, M. K., & Mosack, J. L. (2005) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/073428290502300302 · Cited by 12
Effect of age on spatial memory performance in real museum vs. computer simulation
Korman, M., Weiss, P. L., Hochhauser, M., & Kizony, R. (2019) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-019-1167-2 · Cited by 12
“Performance in ecological environments imposes increased perceptual and attentional loads due to the inherent sensory richness of such settings [24] - the extraneous cognitive load that does not contribute to the learning process itself in real environments is usually high and might interfere with spatial memory abili…”
BackgroundDevelopment of guidelines for designing appliances for older persons
Higgins, P. G., & Glasgow, A. (2012) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-2012-0178-333 · Cited by 13
“task-relevant operations only loading working memory [31].”
Why do cognitive prompts hurt learning in older adults?
Kraiger, K., Cavanagh, T. M., & Willis, C. M. G. (2020) · International Journal of Training and Development · doi:10.1111/ijtd.12169 · Cited by 12
Assessing Cognitive Load Theory to Improve Student Learning for Mechanical Engineers
Impelluso, T. J. (2009) · American Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.1080/08923640903294569 · Cited by 11
“Although this may seem counterintuitive, tests have demonstrated that studying complete examples facilitates learning more effectively than actually solving the equivalent problems (Van Gerven et al. 2002).”
BackgroundOpting Out as an Untapped Resource in Instructional Design: Review and Implications
Sidi, Y., & Ackerman, R. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09879-w · Cited by 13
“Distractions may affect cognitive load by misdirecting attention and working memory resources towards processing information that is irrelevant for learning (e.g., Frisby et al., 2018; Van Gerven et al., 2002), or by investing resources in handling the distractions (Zimmerman, 2008).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F. G. W. C., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- Erasmus University Rotterdam (NL)
- Venue
- Learning and Instruction
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2002-02
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 87-105
- ISSN
- 0959-4752 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2121561709
- Semantic Scholar
- a5c43574830e349c8eb1306745e37fe29e9ed976
- Cited by
- 205
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 11.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Learning and Instruction (publishedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Keywords
- cognitive load theory, worked examples, cognitive aging, older adults, working memory, training efficiency, skill acquisition, practice questions, training duration, cognitive resources
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