The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 54 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Open accessAbstract
The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that cognitive reserve explains why people differ in how much Alzheimer’s disease pathology or age-related brain change they can tolerate while still functioning. It synthesizes epidemiologic, neuroimaging, postmortem, and intervention evidence, and concludes that reserve is modifiable but that causal interventions remain unproven.
Key findings
- Reserve is split into brain reserve, a more passive quantitative tolerance tied to brain size or neurons/synapses, and cognitive reserve, an active functional process in which pre-existing or compensatory networks help cope with damage.
- Epidemiologic studies cited found that fewer than 8 years of education carried 2.2 times higher dementia risk, low occupational attainment carried 2.25 times higher risk, and greater leisure activity was linked to 38% lower risk; a review of 22 cohort studies estimated higher reserve reduced dementia risk by 46%.
- After Alzheimer’s disease becomes clinically apparent, higher reserve is associated with faster decline: memory scores fell about one point yearly on average, with an additional point yearly in those with higher education or occupation.
- Imaging and autopsy evidence indicated that at matched clinical severity, higher education was linked to greater parietotemporal blood-flow deficit and, in 130 elders, each additional year of education reduced the pathology–cognition association by 0.088 standard units; fMRI work distinguished neural reserve from neural compensation.
Methods
- Narrative review by the author, integrating his group’s and others’ epidemiologic cohort studies, functional and resting neuroimaging studies, postmortem analyses, and cognitive or exercise intervention trials.
- Cited samples include 593 non-demented adults aged 60 or older followed for 4 years, 130 elders who had cognitive evaluation before autopsy, and a preliminary 90-person older-adult Space Fortress training study.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis rather than a new primary study or formal meta-analysis; it draws on a cited systematic review of 22 cohort studies for one pooled estimate.
Limitations
- Stated: epidemiologic evidence is correlational and cannot establish causation; controlled intervention studies are needed, and no study to date has shown changes in the key endpoints of slowed cognitive decline or reduced Alzheimer’s disease risk.
- Stated: clinical use of biomarkers and imaging for reserve is premature because prognostic implications are not fully established, and cognitive training evidence is mixed.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without formal risk-of-bias assessment, many findings come from the author’s own research program, and the interaction between brain reserve and cognitive reserve remains unresolved.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
39 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 No basis given · 10 Supported · 10 Own result · 8 Partly supported · 5 Supported so far · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This idea is supported by a set of studies that suggest that prevalence or incidence of dementia is lower in individuals with larger brains13, 14.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Katzman, 1988, Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques, Ann Neurol source
- Supportedcites [14] Schofield, 1997, An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging, Neurology source
The Discussion (p. 5) reports that smaller head circumference was associated with higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. The paper uses head circumference as an index of premorbid brain size (p. 1), so its finding supports the citing sentence’s hedged association. This study measured prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, not incidence of dementia generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, compared to individuals with lower CR, those with higher CR performed better even when they use the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [42] Steffener, 2011, Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve, Brain Imaging Behav source
The Results (Model C) report that, in older adults, higher cognitive reserve reduced the negative effect of network 2 expression on task performance. The Discussion likewise says older adults with greater reserve maintained performance better as network 2 expression increased. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those who engaged in more leisure activities had 38% less risk of developing dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [24] Scarmeas, 2001, Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Neurology source
The Discussion explicitly states that subjects with high leisure activity had 38% less risk of developing dementia. The Results report a relative risk of 0.62 (95% CI 0.46–0.83), consistent with that figure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The rate of decline is more rapid in individuals with high reserve than those with low reserve, even when accounting for a multitude of other factors that may contribute to disease course27, 28, 46.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [27] Stern, 1999, Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve?, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The DOI was not indexed for paper-scoped Semantic Scholar search, so the cited paper’s full text could not be checked directly. A systematic review, “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis” (search score 0.789), explicitly attributes more rapid memory decline in Alzheimer’s patients with higher education and occupational attainment to Stern et al. (1999). This supports the central claim, though the retrieved passage does not verify which other factors the original analysis accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
No paper-scoped Semantic Scholar snippets were available for Scarmeas et al. (2006). However, “Higher education affects accelerated cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease” explicitly cites Scarmeas et al. (2006) among studies finding more rapid cognitive decline after Alzheimer’s onset in patients with higher education (snippet score 0.534). This supports the claim through a secondary citation, although the available evidence does not independently verify which other factors Scarmeas et al. adjusted for. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Supportedcites [46] Hall, 2007, Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Hall’s (2007) title establishes the finding of delayed accelerated memory decline in people who develop dementia. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Episodic memory performance in a multi-ethnic longitudinal study of 13,037 elderly” describes the same pattern: education is associated with a delayed change point followed by faster decline (score 0.52). Hall’s full text was unavailable in the paper-scoped search, so the specific assertion about accounting for other factors could not be checked directly; the available evidence supports the core paraphrase, not every qualification. (LLM, conf=0.72)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In a young group of subjects we identified an activation network that was expressed during the stimulus presentation phase of both tasks and whose increase in expression with increasing load correlated with CR.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Stern, 2008, A common neural network for cognitive reserve in verbal and object working memory in young but not old, Cereb Cortex source
The Discussion identifies a pattern in young subjects during stimulus presentation whose load-related activation had a similar relationship with cognitive reserve in both the letter and shape tasks. The Canonical Variates Analysis reports significant expression of that pattern in both tasks and relates its load-related expression to cognitive-reserve scores. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Similar analysis demonstrated a comparable protective effect of occupational attainment33 and leisure activities34.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Stern, 1995, Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [34] Scarmeas, 2003, Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Arch Neurol source
The cited paper’s Results report an inverse association between activity scores and cerebral blood flow after controlling for clinical severity, which the authors interpret as consistent with cognitive reserve. The Conclusions describe analogous findings for occupational attainment and note evidence linking leisure activities to reduced dementia risk. The citation supports the leisure-activities part of the sentence; occupational attainment has a separate citation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, at a given level of clinical severity, AD patients with higher education have a more severe pattern of AD-related changes on PET scan than those with lower education44, 45.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Garibotto, 2008, Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [45] Kemppainen, 2008, Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Abstract reports that high- and low-educated patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease had the same degree of cognitive deterioration, while the high-educated group showed greater amyloid-tracer uptake and lower glucose metabolism on PET. The Discussion likewise describes more pronounced amyloid accumulation and neuronal dysfunction in the high-educated group. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In AD patients matched for clinical severity, we found an inverse relationship between resting rCBF and years of education32.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Stern, 1992, Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Procedures (p. 2) state that rCBF was measured under resting conditions. The Results (pp. 2–3) report greater parietotemporal flow reductions with more education in AD groups that did not differ on clinical measures; the relationship at the P3 detector remained significant after controlling for dementia severity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The neural implementation of CR might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation16, 38.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
In “Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR,” Stern explicitly says that the neural implementation of cognitive reserve might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation. The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section also describes them as two proposed components. (LLM, conf=0.95)
- Supportedcites [38] Stern, 2005, Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults, Cereb Cortex source
The Introduction (p. 1) explicitly proposes two complementary facets of the neural implementation of cognitive reserve: neural reserve and neural compensation. The paper then defines and contrasts them in the Introduction (pp. 1–2). (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These observations using cerebral blood flow have been replicated by other groups as well35, 36.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Alexander, 1997, Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Am J Psychiatry source
- Supportedcites [36] Perneczky, 2006, Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry source
The Results report an inverse association between schooling and glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. The Discussion says these findings are supported by other groups’ cerebral-blood-flow studies, while noting that the results do not match exactly because of differences in samples and methods. This paper used FDG-PET rather than measuring cerebral blood flow itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, the concept of CR suggests that the brain actively attempts to cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches15, 16.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Stern, 2002, What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section states that active models such as CR propose that the brain copes with damage using pre-existing cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory processes. This directly supports the paraphrase; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We replicated this observation in patients with incident AD28 and also found more rapid decline in cognitive function in AD patients who engaged in more leisure activities prior to dementia onset29.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Supportedcites [29] Helzner, 2007, Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Using a covariance method to analyze the imaging data, we identified a spatial pattern of fMRI activation that was expressed by both groups and whose expression increased as the task became more difficult.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] Stern, 2012, Task difficulty modulates young-old differences in network expression, Brain Res source
The Functional imaging section identifies a spatial pattern common to young and old participants. The Discussion states that its expression increased logarithmically with task difficulty. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In a follow-up analysis41, we found that atrophy in a key area within the first network (i.e. the one that was used by both young and old) was associated with decreased efficiency in that network and increased utilization of the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [41] Steffener, 2009, The impact of age-related changes on working memory functional activity, Brain Imaging Behav sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Conclusion report that lower grey-matter volume in a region of the primary network was associated with greater secondary-network recruitment. The Discussion interprets this as compensation for an affected primary network, but the Results report no significant association between regional grey-matter volume and primary-network expression; decreased efficiency of that network was not demonstrated. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, Basak et al.50 had elders play a complex role-playing game,”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol Aging sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method > Participants section says older adults were assigned to play Rise of Nations, and the General Discussion reports transfer benefits after 23.5 hours of training. The paper identifies Rise of Nations as a complex real-time strategy game, not a role-playing game. Its Abstract reports improvement on a subset of cognitive tasks, rather than across the entire battery (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In research with young adults, one particular training approach produced excellent improvement in gameplay, but, more importantly, also showed transfer of training to other tasks.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Gopher, 1994, Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight, Hum Factors source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] Gopher, 1989, Practice under changing priorities: an approach to the training of complex skills, Acta Psychol source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Blumen, 2010, Training cognitive control in older adults with the space fortress game: the role of training instructions and basic motor ability, Front Aging Neurosci sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (‘The space fortress game and emphasis change instructions’; page unavailable) reports that emphasis-change instructions improved Space Fortress performance in younger adults compared with standard instructions. It says those instructions *may* be important for transfer, but does not report that this approach demonstrated transfer to other tasks. The General Discussion (page unavailable) says future studies will determine whether such transfer occurs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who rely more on this alternate network can still perform the task, but do so more poorly.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the average scores on a memory test decline by about one point yearly, but in those with higher educational or occupational attainment scores decline by an additional point each year.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first network was used by both young and old subjects, and consisted of areas often associated with working memory.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the second network was primarily characterized by activation in parahippocampal areas and was used consistently only by the older subjects.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these networks is a group of brain areas that seem to work together as the task is harder.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these assumptions, individuals with higher CR will begin their cognitive decline when pathology is more advanced and thus have less time until they reach the point where pathology overwhelms function.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, while in some ways interdependent, brain reserve and CR make independent in addition to synergistic contributions to understanding individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the cognitive or neural mechanism that underlies this reserve is unknown.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, clinicians must be aware that in the presence of pathology there should still be a period of time during which even the most sensitive measures would fail to detect cognitive change.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals with high reserve, by definition, will not demonstrate disease-related clinical symptoms as early as individuals with low levels of reserve.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Since people with greater reserve should be able to tolerate more AD pathology, the onset of clinical dementia should be delayed.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirectn = 593- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is possible that individuals with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have more resilience in the face of age- or disease-related changes.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
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In the paper
“Only controlled studies can truly establish that some set of interventions or experiences are beneficial.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In schizophrenia, small effects of cognitive remediation were noted, particularly in stable patients and when combined with adjunctive rehabilitation52.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
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In the paper
“While the original observations concern easily measurable variables like education or occupational attainment, more recent studies have delved more deeply into lifestyle factors, cognitively stimulating behaviors, personality factors and the like.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
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In the paper
“However, the exact”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“These findings support the possibility that it may be possible to intervene even later in life in order to impart reserve, slow age-related cognitive decline, and prolonged healthy aging.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This is a hopeful idea, since it suggests that changes in lifestyle even later in life might impart reserve against age-related cognitive decline or dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Similarly, focused training has improved working memory capacity and shown transfer of training to nontrained working memory tasks51.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Studies using these endpoints will be very expensive because they will require a large number of participants and will have to be conducted over several years.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While epidemiologic studies can only describe correlations and do not directly test causation, they are useful for deriving hypotheses and exploring ideas.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By shifting emphasis from game to game, participants cannot fall into a fixed strategy. They must develop the ability to deal with the entire task as a whole – skills that might be termed attentional allocation or executive control.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of cognitive reserve, and pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease.
“The assumption is that disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of CR, and that the pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed AD.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
“However, we reasoned that there is common point in all people where the pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No study to date has shown change in slowed rate of cognitive decline in aging or reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“No study to date has shown change in either of these endpoints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology.
“Since the brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to this resilience.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Researchers have long reported that people with more years of formal education are at lower risk for Alzheimer's and other dementias than those with fewer years of formal education.80,[144][145][146][147][148][149]”
From 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2023) · cites this paper as [146]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This concept was theoretically framed by Park and Bischof (2013) as “scaffolding,” similar to the closely related cognitive reserve theory proposed by Stern (2012).”
In the citing paper
“supporting the theory that a greater cognitive reserve could help protect against development of LOAD117.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“The level of education, a surrogate marker of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2012), is an important determinant of the expression of VCI, such that for a given level of neuropathology higher education is associated with less cognitive deficits (Zieren et al., 2013).”
From The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia (2013) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“These findings lead to the suggestion that higher social engagement and support experienced both before and during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic might have had a protective/mitigating role by contributing to cognitive (51) and affective reserve (52).”
From The impact of COVID-19 infection and enforced prolonged social isolation on neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with and without dementia: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that individuals differ in their level of resilience against brain pathology and hence may exhibit differences in cognitive function despite equivalent levels of pathology (Stern, 2002(Stern, , 2012)).”
From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“The theory suggests that individuals differ in their degree of resilience against age-related brain pathology and hence may show differences in cognitive function in relation to an equivalent level of pathology [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve is a theoretical concept that may account for the role of social isolation and its association with cognitive outcomes in later life.”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Such individuals are likely to receive less cognitive stimulation through social contact, resulting in lower cognitive reserve and hence poorer cognitive function [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
Citations
Cites
What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept
STERN, Y. (2002) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617702813248 · Cited by 3,951
Self-citationRunning increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/6368 · Cited by 3,880
Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943
Self-citationRunning enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice
van Praag, H., Christie, B. R., Sejnowski, T. J., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.23.13427 · Cited by 2,904
Neural consequences of enviromental enrichment
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (2000) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/35044558 · Cited by 2,468
A Meta-Analysis of Cognitive Remediation for Schizophrenia: Methodology and Effect Sizes
Wykes, T., Huddy, V., Cellard, C., McGurk, S. R., & Czobor, P. (2011) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10060855 · Cited by 1,693
Training and plasticity of working memory
Klingberg, T. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 · Cited by 1,585
Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease
Stern, Y. (1994) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03510370056032 · Cited by 1,434
Self-citationAgeing, fitness and neurocognitive function
Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., Cohen, N. J., Banich, M. T., McAuley, E., Harrison, C. R., Chason, J., Vakil, E., Bardell, L., Boileau, R. A., et al. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/22682 · Cited by 1,394
Katzman, R., Terry, R., DeTeresa, R., Brown, T., Davies, P., Fuld, P., Renbing, X., & Peck, A. (1988) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410230206 · Cited by 1,225
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Gurland, 1981, The borderlands of dementia: the influence of sociocultural characteristics on rates of dementia occurring in the senium, Aging, 15, 61
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–600 of 3,537
Cognitive Reserve as a Useful Concept for Early Intervention Research in Multiple Sclerosis
Sumowski, J. (2015) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2015.00176 · Cited by 55
Nilsson, J., & Lövdén, M. (2018) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-018-0365-z · Cited by 69
“The concept therefore encompasses compensatory changes in cognitive processing in response to negative brain changes as a result of aging or disease as well as individual differences in how tasks are processed that exist before negative brain changes occur [4, 13, 29].”
Santos, O. A., Pedraza, O., Lucas, J. A., Duara, R., Greig‐Custo, M. T., Al‐Shaikh, F. S. H., Liesinger, A. M., Bieniek, K. F., Hinkle, K. M., Lesser, E. R., et al. (2019) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2018.12.013 · Cited by 54
“Among the sociodemographic factors important to AD research, both educational and occupational attainments have been used as proxies for cognitive reserve [13].”
InfluentialBabiloni, C., Lopez, S., Percio, C. D., Noce, G., Pascarelli, M. T., Lizio, R., Teipel, S. J., González‐Escamilla, G., Bakardjian, H., George, N., et al. (2020) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.01.012 · Cited by 61
Dodge, H. H., Yu, K., Wu, C.-Y., Pruitt, P. J., Asgari, M., Kaye, J. A., Hampstead, B. M., Struble, L., Potempa, K., Lichtenberg, P., et al. (2024) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnad147 · Cited by 56
“We hypothesized enhanced compensatory neural activities, that is, improved cognitive reserve or scaffolding (Park & Bischof, 2013; Stern, 2012), as an underlying biological mechanism for the efficacy.”
BackgroundMigration and dementia: a meta-analysis of epidemiological studies in Europe
Selten, J., Termorshuizen, F., van Sonsbeek, M., Bogers, J. P. A. M., & Schmand, B. A. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720000586 · Cited by 59
“This hypothesis is supported by a large number of studies (e.g., Ott et al., 1995; Valenzuela & Sachdev, 2006), but the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundResultGomes, P., Tzouanou, F., Skolariki, K., Vamvaka-Iakovou, A., Nogueras‐Ortiz, C. J., Tsirtsaki, K., Waites, C. L., Vlamos, P., Sousa, N., Costa‐Silva, B., et al. (2022) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2022.114183 · Cited by 60
“Education level is the most prominent among the modifiable risk factors, with years of education contributing to cognitive reserve and resilience to AD (Stern, 2012), probably by modulating synaptic density.”
Education, Social Engagement, and Cognitive Function: A Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis
Du, C., Miyazaki, Y., Dong, X., & Li, M. (2023) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbad088 · Cited by 57
Walhovd, K. B., Fjell, A. M., & Espeseth, T. (2014) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12120 · Cited by 60
Can education rescue genetic liability for cognitive decline?
Cook, C. J., & Fletcher, J. M. (2014) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.06.049 · Cited by 56
“The first alludes to an unchangeable endowment imbued in early life; this is referred to as brain reserve (Katzman 1993, Stern 2012).”
Vuoksimaa, E., Panizzon, M. S., Chen, C., Eyler, L. T., Fennema‐Notestine, C., Fiecas, M. J. A., Fischl, B. R., Franz, C. E., Grant, M. D., Jak, A. J., et al. (2013) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.02.022 · Cited by 60
“…to test the hypothesis of a moderating effect of cognitive reserve, which means testing for the presence of a significant interaction between measures of cognitive reserve and brain pathology in prediction of cognitive performance (as suggested by Christensen et al. (2007), see also Stern (2012)).”
BackgroundWilson, E. N., Abela, A. R., Carmo, S. D., Allard, S. T. M., Marks, A. R., Welikovitch, L. A., Ducatenzeiler, A., Chudasama, Y., & Cuello, A. C. (2016) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhv332 · Cited by 56
Cognitive reserve, cognition, and regional brain damage in MS: A 2 -year longitudinal study
Rocca, M. A., Riccitelli, G. C., Meani, A., Pagani, E., Sette, P. D., Martinelli, V., Comı, G., Falini, A., & Filippi, M. (2018) · Multiple Sclerosis Journal · doi:10.1177/1352458517750767 · Cited by 55
Investigating Predictors of Cognitive Decline Using Machine Learning
Casanova, R., Saldana, S. J., Lutz, M. W., Plassman, B. L., Kuchibhatla, M. N., & Hayden, K. M. (2018) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gby054 · Cited by 62
Genetic risk for Alzheimer disease predicts hippocampal volume through the human lifespan
Walhovd, K., Fjell, A., Sørensen, Ø., Mowinckel, A., Reinbold, C., Idland, A., Watne, L., Franke, A., Dobričić, V., Kilpert, F., et al. (2020) · Neurology: Genetics · doi:10.1212/nxg.0000000000000506 · Cited by 44
“Within a brain reserve account, such differences in brain structure may relate to differences in tolerance to pathology before one falls under a functional threshold.(39) Hence, these differences may become readily functionally apparent only in older age, but they likely are there to begin with and throughout life in…”
BackgroundThe role of education and income for cognitive functioning in old age: A cross‐country comparison
Rodriguez, F. S., Hofbauer, L. M., & Röhr, S. (2021) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5613 · Cited by 56
“Cognitive reserve is a well‐established protector against cognitive impairments in old age(4,5) that is built by intellectual activities, such as education.(6) People with higher education exhibit better cognitive functioning in adulthood,(7) a delayed rate of cognitive decline in old age,(8) and a reduced risk of dem…”
BackgroundLessons Learned from a Human-Centered Design of an Immersive Exergame for People with Dementia
Karaosmanoglu, S., Rings, S., Kruse, L., Stein, C., & Steinicke, F. (2021) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3474679 · Cited by 66
Targeting glycogen synthase kinase-3β for Alzheimer's disease: Recent advances and future Prospects
Cheng, Z., Han, T., Yao, J., Wang, K., Dong, X., Fan, Y., Huang, H., Han, M., Liao, Q., He, S., et al. (2023) · European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.116065 · Cited by 58
Pinter, D., Sumowski, J. F., DeLuca, J., Fazekas, F., Pichler, A., Khalil, M., Langkammer, C., Fuchs, S., & Enzinger, C. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087567 · Cited by 54
“educational attainment (EA); occupational attainment, vocabulary knowledge, premorbid cognitive leisure activity) might moderate the negative impact of pathologic brain changes, such as atrophy, on cognition [1–7].”
Backgroundde Oliveira, M. O., Nitríni, R., Yassuda, M. S., & Brucki, S. M. D. (2014) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2014/875960 · Cited by 54
“Therefore, in this context, assessment of premorbid IQ might be useful to estimate cognitive change [21].”
BackgroundMethodThe biomarker-based diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. 1—ethical and societal issues
Porteri, C., Albanese, E., Scerri, C., Carrillo, M. C., Snyder, H. M., Martensson, B., Baker, M. R., Giacobini, E., Boccardi, M., Winblad, B. G., et al. (2017) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.07.011 · Cited by 55
Cognitive Changes Related to Cancer Therapy
Vannorsdall, T. D. (2017) · Medical Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2017.06.006 · Cited by 56
Physical activity pre- and post-dementia: English Longitudinal Study of Ageing
Soni, M., Orrell, M. W., Bandelow, S., Steptoe, A., Rafnsson, S. B., d’Orsi, E., Xavier, A. J., & Hogervorst, E. (2017) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2017.1390731 · Cited by 57
“It is theorised that these neuroprotective factors may all contribute to an individuals cognitive reserve; meaning that regular PA may increase a persons ability to recruit compensatory cognitive processing in order to reduce the effects of brain pathology (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundGuzzetti, S., Mancini, F., Caporali, A., Manfredi, L., & Daini, R. (2018) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2018.11.020 · Cited by 54
“This data is in contrast with findings by Stern (2009, 2012) in Alzheimer's disease, as differences in cognitive performance between patients with higher and lower education or occupational attainment tend to reduce over time after the clinical presentation of the disease.”
Xu, H., Yang, R., Dintica, C. S., Qi, X., Song, R., Bennett, D. A., & Xu, W. (2020) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12085 · Cited by 56
“In addition, sensitivity analyses on the association of lifespan CR indicator with MCI and its progression to dementia were performed including: (1) multiple imputation by chained equation (Markov chain Monte Carlo, MCMC) to impute missing values on BMI, heart disease, and stroke, generating five completed data sets w…”
MethodEmerging Concepts of Motor Reserve in Parkinson’s Disease
Chung, S. J., Lee, J. J., Lee, P. H., & Sohn, Y. H. (2020) · Journal of Movement Disorders · doi:10.14802/jmd.20029 · Cited by 50
Positive Affect Is Associated With Less Memory Decline: Evidence From a 9-Year Longitudinal Study
Hittner, E. F., Stephens, J. E., Turiano, N. A., Gerstorf, D., Lachman, M. E., & Haase, C. M. (2020) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797620953883 · Cited by 51
“…that (a) we tracked changes over almost a decade, and (b) many other factors contribute to cognitive aging (Plassman, 2010), such as education, which is a widely studied protective factor in cognitive aging (Stern, 2012) and which had a similarly sized effect on memory changes in the present study.”
ResultNoradrenaline in the aging brain: Promoting cognitive reserve or accelerating Alzheimer's disease?
Mather, M. (2021) · Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.05.013 · Cited by 57
“agnoses versus brain pathology led to arguments that education provides some sort of reserve that allows people to keep functioning well despite the encroaching brain pathology [26,177].”
BackgroundOffspring Educational Attainment and Older Parents' Cognition in Mexico
Ma, M., Yahirun, J., Saenz, J. L., & Sheehan, C. (2021) · Demography · doi:10.1215/00703370-8931725 · Cited by 56
“…chil dren’s cog ni tive re serve, a con cept which neu ro sci en tists re fer to as “dif fer ences be tween in di vid u als in sus cep ti bil ity to age-re lated brain changes . . . whereby some peo ple can tol er ate more of these changes than oth ers and main tain func tion” (Stern 2012:1006).”
BackgroundMeltzer, J. A., Rose, M. K., Le, A., Spencer, K. A., Goldstein, L., Gubanova, A., Lai, A. C., Yossofzai, M., Armstrong, S. E. M., & Bialystok, E. (2021) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2021.1991262 · Cited by 50
“…review by Livingston et al. (2017) estimated that 35% of dementia risk is modifiable through lifestyle factors that confer “cognitive reserve” – the ability to tolerate a greater degree of neurodegenerative disease before displaying symptoms of dementia (Chan et al., 2018; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundAlzheimer’s disease: a mini-review for the clinician
Madnani, R. S. (2023) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2023.1178588 · Cited by 56
“Maintenance of cardiovascular fitness (44), continued intellectual activity (45), and consumption of plant-based foods (46) can all serve to strengthen cognitive function and decrease risk for AD, but ultimately, genetic predisposition to AD is considered to be of greater influence in the development of the condition…”
BackgroundSilverstein, S. M., Wang, Y., & Keane, B. P. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00624 · Cited by 57
“…would appear to be a reasonable and promising direction to pursue, given that premorbid cognitive reserve predicts later cognitive functioning in normal aging (Steffener and Stern, 2012), neurodegenerative disorders (Koerts et al., 2012; Stern, 2012), and schizophrenia (de La Serna et al., 2013).”
BackgroundCadar, D., Robitaille, A., Clouston, S., Hofer, S. M., Piccinin, A. M., & Terrera, G. M. (2017) · Neuroepidemiology · doi:10.1159/000452276 · Cited by 53
Lane, A., Windsor, T. D., Andel, R., & Luszcz, M. A. (2017) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000475559 · Cited by 53
Linking openness to cognitive ability in older adulthood: The role of activity diversity
Jackson, J. J., Hill, P. L., Payne, B. R., Parisi, J. M., & Stine‐Morrow, E. A. L. (2019) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2019.1655705 · Cited by 53
“Higher levels of education – and the enriched socioeconomic experiences that go along with higher levels of education – are thought to be protective against age-related deficits because of “cognitive reserve” (Stern, 2002, 2012; Tucker-Drob, Johnson, & Jones, 2009).”
BackgroundDiscordant amyloid-β PET and CSF biomarkers and its clinical consequences
de Wilde, A., Reimand, J., Teunissen, C. E., Zwan, M. D., Windhorst, A. D., Boellaard, R., van der Flier, W. M., Scheltens, P., van Berckel, B. N. M., Bouwman, F. H., et al. (2019) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-019-0532-x · Cited by 54
Internet use in old age predicts smaller cognitive decline only in men
Ihle, A., Bavelier, D., Maurer, J., Oris, M., & Kliegel, M. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-65846-9 · Cited by 54
Bilingualism and aging: A focused neuroscientific review
Zhang, H., Wu, Y. J., & Thierry, G. (2020) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2020.100890 · Cited by 56
Gallou, E. (2022) · Wellbeing Space and Society · doi:10.1016/j.wss.2022.100084 · Cited by 65
“Fancourt and Steptoe (2018) and Stern (2012) supported that memory and semantic fluency are positively associated with increased exposure to culture, and cognitive decline is negatively associated with more frequent cultural engagement.”
BackgroundTipping points in neurodegeneration
Simons, M., Levin, J., & Dichgans, M. (2023) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2023.05.031 · Cited by 52
Prevention of Age-Related Cognitive Decline: Which Strategies, When, and forWhom?
Shatenstein, B., & Barberger‐Gateau, P. (2015) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-150256 · Cited by 56
“Consequently it would appear that individuals with high cognitive reserve can tolerate more pathology so onset of cognitive decline and dementia are delayed [25, 26].”
BackgroundInfluentialAnstey, K. J. (2013) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025413512255 · Cited by 54
“Since this early work, the idea of cognitive reserve has also been proposed (Stern, 2002, 2006, 2012) to describe the discrepancy between cognitive function and neuropathology.”
BackgroundOrthostatic Hypotension and Risk of Incident Dementia
Crémer, A., Soumaré, A., Berr, C., Dartigues, J., Gabelle, A., Gosse, P., & Tzourio, C. (2017) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.117.09048 · Cited by 54
Perry, A., Wen, W. X., Kochan, N. A., Thalamuthu, A., Sachdev, P. S., & Breakspear, M. J. (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23717 · Cited by 57
“Expressions of these factors are postulated to contribute to an individual’s capacity to mitigate the influence of age, which has been broadly grouped together into the rubric term “cognitive reserve” (CR) (Stern, 2009; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundIhle, A., Oris, M., Sauter, J., Rimmele, U., & Kliegel, M. (2018) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000488052 · Cited by 52
Wang, Y., Du, Y., Li, J., & Qiu, C. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00129 · Cited by 54
“…which is proposed to interpret the disparities between clinical phenotypes of cognitive aging and the load of neuropathologies in the brain (Stern, 2012), can be conceived as the sum of lifetime input of cognitive reserve or intellectual factors (Richards and Deary, 2005; Dekhtyar et al.,…”
BackgroundInfluentialPerry, B. L., Roth, A. R., Peng, S., Risacher, S. L., Saykin, A. J., & Apostolova, L. G. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbab192 · Cited by 54
Music Engagement as a Source of Cognitive Reserve
Wolff, L., Quan, Y., Perry, G., & Thompson, W. F. (2023) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/15333175231214833 · Cited by 53
“10,11 Reserve is proposed to be in fl uenced by three partially interactive sub-processes: brain reserve, brain maintenance and cognitive reserve.”
BackgroundThe impact of education and occupation on cognitive impairment: a cross-sectional study in China
Zhong, T., Li, S., Liu, P., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2024.1435626 · Cited by 51
“CR is thought to be facilitated by lifelong intellectual engagement, encompassing formal education, challenging occupations, and leisure activities (Stern, 2012; Lövdén et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMethodRouillard, M., Audiffren, M. F., Albinet, C. T., Bahri, M. A., Garraux, G., & Collette, F. (2016) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1207755 · Cited by 51
“Although most of the studies on pathological aging were conducted in the context of Alzheimer’s disease (Okonkwo et al., 2014; Stern, 2006, 2012), a recent meta-analysis provided evidence that a higher education level was significantly associated with better performance on tests assessing various…”
BackgroundGu, L., Chen, J., Gao, L., Shu, H., Wang, Z., Liu, D., Yan, Y., Li, S., & Zhang, Z. (2017) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2017.10.030 · Cited by 51
Courtin, É., Nafilyan, V., Glymour, M. M., Goldberg, M., Berr, C., Berkman, L. F., Zins, M., & Avendaño, M. (2019) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2018-211746 · Cited by 53
Campbell, L. M., Paolillo, E. W., Heaton, A., Tang, B., Depp, C. A., Granholm, E. L., Heaton, R. K., Swendsen, J. D., Moore, D. J., & Moore, R. C. (2020) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/19579 · Cited by 51
“The relationship between cognitively engaging activities and better cognition has also been documented in both older adults and persons with HIV and is thought to be related to increased cognitive reserve that can be protective against neurocognitive aging and HIV-associated neurocognitive impairment [41,46,47].”
BackgroundPhonemic and semantic verbal fluency tasks: normative data for elderly Brazilians
Esteves, C. S., de Oliveira, C. R., Moret‐Tatay, C., et al. (2015) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1590/1678-7153.201528215 · Cited by 51
“This is due to the fact that the number of years of study could be a factor of cognitive reserve (Stern, 2009, 2012).”
BackgroundFauvel, B., Groussard, M., Mutlu, J., Arenaza‐Urquijo, E. M., Eustache, F., Desgranges, B., & Platel, H. (2014) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2014.00227 · Cited by 57
“Moreover, in humans, educational attainment is known to be a major factor in determining individuals’ cognitive reserve later in life (Stern, 2012), even when occupation is controlled for.”
Chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairments: White matter pathologies
Matsos, A., Loomes, M., Zhou, I., MacMillan, E. L., Sabel, I., Rotziokos, E., Beckwith, W., & Johnston, I. N. (2017) · Cancer Treatment Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.ctrv.2017.09.010 · Cited by 50
Potential neurobiological links between social isolation and Alzheimer's disease risk
Drinkwater, E., Davies, C., & Spires‐Jones, T. L. (2021) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15373 · Cited by 56
“Those with lower education and occupational attainment or decreased engagement in leisure activities are associated with a greater risk of developing AD (Scarmeas, Levy, Tang, Manly, & Stern, 2001; Stern et al., 1994) and are thought to have a lower cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundCheng, G., Liu, D., Huang, L.-Y., Han, G., Hu, F., Wu, Z.-X., He, X., Huang, Y., Yu, Y., Xu, L., et al. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13047 · Cited by 48
Modifiable cardiovascular risk factors and genetics for targeted prevention of dementia
Rasmussen, I. J., & Frikke‐Schmidt, R. (2023) · European Heart Journal · doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehad293 · Cited by 55
Hara, Y., Yuk, F., Puri, R., Janssen, W. G. M., Rapp, P. R., & Morrison, J. H. (2016) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3480-13.2016 · Cited by 51
“Synaptic and metabolic dynamics within the dlPFC may be among the factors responsible for the cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012) or resilience (Terracciano et al., 2013) that confers protection against decline in many aged individuals.”
BackgroundHassing, L. B. (2017) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbx170 · Cited by 50
“However, according to the cognitive reserve hypothesis steeper decline is predicted when decline starts, as has been shown in studies on cognitive reserve and Alzheimer’s disease (Y. Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundNasoohi, S., Parveen, K., & Ishrat, T. (2018) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-180735 · Cited by 51
“Not surprisingly,highersocialandcognitiveengagements [12,13]ormoreyearsofformaleducation[14,15]are knowntolowertherisksfordevelopingdementias.”
Formánek, T., Kågström, A., Winkler, P., & Čermáková, P. (2019) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2019.03.001 · Cited by 54
“It has long been believed that cognition declines only few years prior to the diagnosis of dementia and individuals with the lowest cognitive reserve, as indicated by different measures of socioeconomic position, are at the highest risk for its development [10].”
BackgroundPfenninger, S. E., & Singleton, D. (2019) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444819000235 · Cited by 63
“…the brain as attempting to ‘cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches’ (Stern, 2012, p. 2), the former refers to the resilience of already established networks – the brain being able to tolerate more pathology before…”
BackgroundSolà‐Valls, N., Ariño, H., Escudero, D., Solana, E., Lladó, A., Sánchez‐Valle, R., Blanco, Y., Saiz, A., Dalmau, J. O., & Graus, F. (2019) · Neurology Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1212/nxi.0000000000000652 · Cited by 51
“Last, we could only explore the cognitive reserve by partially assessing various aspects of life experience but the concept of reserve also accounts for individual differences in susceptibility to age-related brain changes that could not be assessed in this study.(28)”
BackgroundMethodSubjective Cognitive Decline, Cognitive Reserve Indicators, and the Incidence of Dementia
Jia, F., Li, Y., Li, M., & Cao, F. (2020) · Journal of the American Medical Directors Association · doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2020.08.005 · Cited by 54
Stefanovski, L., Meier, J. M., Pai, R. K., Triebkorn, P., Lett, T. A. P., Martin, L., Bülau, K., Hofmann‐Apitius, M., Solodkin, A., McIntosh, A. R., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroinformatics · doi:10.3389/fninf.2021.630172 · Cited by 47
“This heterogeneity in phenotypes can have various causes, such as educational and social factors, the individual brain’s structural vulnerability, or the patient’s cognitive “reserve” (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundNieuwoudt, S., Dickie, K., Coetsee, C., Engelbrecht, L., & Terblanche, E. (2019) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2019.1598538 · Cited by 54
“Stern (2012), who analyzed 593 non-demented adults ( ≥ 60 years old) over a four-year period, found that adults who had less than eight years of education were 2.2 times more likely to develop dementia compared to those with higher levels of education.”
InfluentialRetractedOtake, M., Tokunaga, S., Watanabe, K., Abe, M., Sekiguchi, T., Sugimoto, H., Kishimoto, T., & Kudo, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2021.633076 · Cited by 50
“…substrate or adaptability of cognition (Stern, 2013; Amieva et al., 2014), suggests that more brain reserve helps people tolerate more neuropathology without cognitive or functional decline, and therefore they develop dementia more slowly than do people without brain reserve (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundEffects of cognitive reserve depend on executive and semantic demands of the task
Darby, R., Brickhouse, M., Wolk, D., & Dickerson, B. (2017) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2017-315719 · Cited by 42
Lojo‐Seoane, C., Facal-Mayo, D., Guàrdia‐Olmos, J., Pereiro, A. X., & Juncos‐Rabadán, O. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00189 · Cited by 49
“The CR construct is therefore used to explain why two people can have different clinical manifestations of the same disease (Stern, 2012).”
MethodNeurodegeneration, synaptic dysfunction, and gliosis are phenotypic of Alzheimer dementia
Merluzzi, A. P., Carlsson, C. M., Johnson, S. C., Schindler, S. E., Asthana, S., Blennow, K., Zetterberg, H., & Bendlin, B. B. (2018) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000005901 · Cited by 49
“Lifestyle factors and cognitive strategies may contribute to cognitive reserve, allowing individuals to function despite AD neuropathology.(32) A related concept is that of brain reserve, in which structural or functional features of the brain confer resilience to AD dementia.”
BackgroundFrankenmolen, N. L., Overdorp, E. J., Fasotti, L., Claassen, J. A. H. R., Kessels, R. P. C., & Oosterman, J. M. (2018) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617718000619 · Cited by 51
“Cognitive reserve is suggested to be protective against cognitive decline and to facilitate successful compensation (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundLiu, Y., & Lachman, M. E. (2019) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbz034 · Cited by 57
Is the Cutoff of the MoCA too High? Longitudinal Data From Highly Educated Older Adults
Elkana, O., Tal, N., Oren, N., et al. (2019) · Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1177/0891988719874121 · Cited by 49
Garcia, M. A., Downer, B., Chiu, C.-T., Saenz, J. L., Ortiz, K., & Wong, R. (2021) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnaa112 · Cited by 47
“…Soldan et al., 2017), living a greater number of years cognitively healthy (Crimmins et al., 2018; Farina, Hayward, Kim, & Crimmins, 2019; Lievre, Alley, & Crimmins, 2008; Robitaille et al., 2018), and lower risk for ADRD (Caamaño-Isorna, Corral, Montes-Martínez, & Takkouche, 2006; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundCuddy, L. K., Prokopenko, D., Cunningham, E. P., Brimberry, R., Song, P., Kirchner, R., Chapman, B., Hofmann, O., Hide, W., Procissi, D., et al. (2020) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaz2541 · Cited by 45
“Genetic or environmental modifiers may determine the threshold for RAS activation and thus explain why brains of some cognitively normal individuals are resilient or resistant against AD pathology (72, 77, 78).”
BackgroundActive lifestyles moderate clinical outcomes in autosomal dominant frontotemporal degeneration
Casaletto, K. B., Staffaroni, A. M., Wolf, A., Appleby, B., Brushaber, D., Coppola, G., Dickerson, B., Domoto‐Reilly, K., Elahi, F. M., Fields, J., et al. (2020) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12001 · Cited by 48
Risk Factors for Alzheimer’s Disease: An Epidemiological Study
Janoutová, J., Kovaľová, M., Machaczka, O., Ambrož, P., Zatloukalová, A., Němček, K., & Janout, V. (2021) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/1567205018666210820124135 · Cited by 49
Lu, Y., Wen, H., Liu, C., Wang, C., Yu, H., Zhang, K., Han, Q., Liu, Y., Han, Z., Li, Z., et al. (2023) · Bioactive Materials · doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.06.011 · Cited by 51
“Aging is characterized by the gradual loss of physiological integrity, organs dysfunction, tissue loss of homeostasis and reduced regenerative capacity [1,2].”
BackgroundDeterminants of Cognitive Impairment in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis with and without Atrophy
Eijlers, A. J. C., Meijer, K. A., van Geest, Q., Geurts, J. J. G., & Schoonheim, M. M. (2018) · Radiology · doi:10.1148/radiol.2018172808 · Cited by 48
Contributions of Modifiable Risk Factors to Dementia Incidence: A Bayesian Network Analysis
Liang, J., Lü, L., Li, J., Qu, X.-Y., Li, J., Qian, S., Wang, Y., Jia, R., Wang, C., & Xu, Y. (2020) · Journal of the American Medical Directors Association · doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2020.04.006 · Cited by 51
The Education of Multiple Family Members and the Life-Course Pathways to Cognitive Impairment
Yahirun, J., Vasireddy, S., & Hayward, M. D. (2020) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbaa039 · Cited by 46
“The idea that parental education and resources enhance children’s “cognitive reserve,” such that cognitive stimulation during early life leads to physical, neurological, and chemical changes in the brain itself (Meng & D’Arcy, 2012; Stern, 2012), is one direct way in which parents shape offspring cognitive health.”
BackgroundInfluentialCognitive Activity and Onset Age of Incident Alzheimer Disease Dementia
Wilson, R. S., Wang, T., Yu, L., Grodstein, F., Bennett, D. A., & Boyle, P. A. (2021) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000012388 · Cited by 51
Lifestyle Enrichment in Later Life and Its Association With Dementia Risk
Wu, Z., Pandigama, D. H., Wrigglesworth, J., Owen, A. J., Woods, R. L., Chong, T. T. ‐., Orchard, S. G., Shah, R. C., Sheets, K. M., McNeil, J. J., et al. (2023) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.23690 · Cited by 53
Personality, health, and brain integrity: the Lothian birth cohort study 1936.
Booth, T., Mõttus, R., Corley, J., Gow, A., Henderson, R. D., Maniega, S. M., Murray, C., Royle, N., Sprooten, E., Valdés-Hernández, M., et al. (2014) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000012 · Cited by 48
“…of the brain and cognitive functioning have been shown in a large number of studies (e.g. Mailard, et al., 2012), with some arguing that volume of brain tissue may be protective against cognitive decline and risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s (e.g., the passive reserve hypothesis by Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundSerum Uric Acid Levels in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease: A Meta-Analysis
Chen, X., Guo, X., Huang, R., Chen, Y., Zheng, Z., & Shang, H. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094084 · Cited by 45
“[1].”
Costa, L., Gago, M. F., Yelshyna, D., Ferreira, J., da Silva, H. D. M., Rocha, L. A., Sousa, N., & Bicho, E. G. (2016) · Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience · doi:10.1155/2016/3891253 · Cited by 51
“Patients with higher cognitive reserve, due to education and occupational attainment, can compensate their deficits and be more resilient to structural pathological brain changes [59].”
BackgroundPersonality and Incident Alzheimer’s Disease: Theory, Evidence, and Future Directions
Segerstrom, S. C. (2018) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gby063 · Cited by 46
“Finally, cognitive reserve refers to the pathoplastic effect of variables such as educational and occupational attainment and cognitive activity on AD risk (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundThe Dynamics of Dementia Communication
Wray, A. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190917807.001.0001 · Cited by 51
Almeida‐Meza, P., Steptoe, A., & Cadar, D. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-200952 · Cited by 48
“Hence, improving cognitive reserve capacity through healthy lifestyle choices represents a promising preventive avenue against dementia development [3].”
BackgroundActivity Engagement and Cognitive Performance Amongst Older Adults
Weaver, A. N., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.620867 · Cited by 52
“This ability to compensate, also referred to as the brain reserve (Stern, 2012), is often described as the employment of high functioning neural resources that work harder in order to attempt to maintain similar levels of functioning for brain regions that have suffered damage or are experiencing…”
BackgroundBeyond “Use It or Lose It”: The Impact of Engagement on Cognitive Aging
Stine‐Morrow, E. A. L., & Manavbasi, I. E. (2022) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121020-030017 · Cited by 52
Contador, I., Alzola, P., Stern, Y., de la Torre‐Luque, A., Bermejo‐Pareja, F., & Fernández‐Calvo, B. (2022) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2022.101814 · Cited by 47
“Briefly, CR theory suggests that participation in cognitively stimulating activities throughout life, which is estimated through the mentioned CR proxies, increases the brain’s ability to cope with brain damage (Stern, 2002, 2012).”
Self-citationShpanskaya, K. S., Choudhury, K. R., Hostage, C. A., Murphy, K. R., Petrella, J. R., & Doraiswamy, P. M. (2014) · Journal of Neuroradiology · doi:10.1016/j.neurad.2013.11.004 · Cited by 46
Sposito, G., Neri, A. L., & Yassuda, M. S. (2016) · Revista Brasileira de Geriatria e Gerontologia · doi:10.1590/1809-9823.2016.15044 · Cited by 46
Premorbid exercise engagement and motor reserve in Parkinson's disease
Sunwoo, M. K., Lee, J. E., Hong, J. Y., Ye, B. S., Lee, H. S., Oh, J. S., Kim, J. S., Lee, P. H., & Sohn, Y. H. (2016) · Parkinsonism & Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2016.10.023 · Cited by 43
The influence of cognitive reserve and age on the use of memory strategies
Frankenmolen, N. L., Fasotti, L., Kessels, R. P. C., & Oosterman, J. M. (2018) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2017.1422472 · Cited by 46
“Moreover, previous studies have shown that a higher CR reduces the risk of developing dementia (Dekhtyar et al., 2015; Stern, 2012), possibly because individuals who use e ffi cient compensatory mechanisms are better able to compensate for potential disease progression.”
Trends in the Prevalence and Disparity in Cognitive Limitations of Americans 55–69 Years Old
Choi, H., Schoeni, R. F., Martin, L. G., & Langa, K. M. (2017) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbx155 · Cited by 46
Vlachos, G. S., Cosentino, S., Kosmidis, M. H., Anastasiou, C. A., Yannakoulia, M., Dardiotis, E., Hadjigeorgiou, G. M., Sakka, P., Ntanasi, E., & Scarmeas, N. (2019) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5073 · Cited by 49
Metadata
- Authors
- Stern, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stern, Yaakov
- ORCID
- Stern, Yaakov
- Venue
- The Lancet Neurology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1006-1012
- ISSN
- 1474-4422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3507991
- OpenAlex
- W2144907160
- Cited by
- 3,557
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 412 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 311 · 2023: 343 · 2022: 281 · 2021: 303 · 2020: 350 · 2019: 292 · 2018: 244 · 2017: 213 · 2016: 176 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 93 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- The Lancet Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026158, R01AG014671)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, brain reserve, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive aging, dementia risk, educational attainment, occupational attainment, leisure
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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