The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 54 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Open accessAbstract
The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that cognitive reserve explains why people differ in how much Alzheimer’s disease pathology or age-related brain change they can tolerate while still functioning. It synthesizes epidemiologic, neuroimaging, postmortem, and intervention evidence, and concludes that reserve is modifiable but that causal interventions remain unproven.
Key findings
- Reserve is split into brain reserve, a more passive quantitative tolerance tied to brain size or neurons/synapses, and cognitive reserve, an active functional process in which pre-existing or compensatory networks help cope with damage.
- Epidemiologic studies cited found that fewer than 8 years of education carried 2.2 times higher dementia risk, low occupational attainment carried 2.25 times higher risk, and greater leisure activity was linked to 38% lower risk; a review of 22 cohort studies estimated higher reserve reduced dementia risk by 46%.
- After Alzheimer’s disease becomes clinically apparent, higher reserve is associated with faster decline: memory scores fell about one point yearly on average, with an additional point yearly in those with higher education or occupation.
- Imaging and autopsy evidence indicated that at matched clinical severity, higher education was linked to greater parietotemporal blood-flow deficit and, in 130 elders, each additional year of education reduced the pathology–cognition association by 0.088 standard units; fMRI work distinguished neural reserve from neural compensation.
Methods
- Narrative review by the author, integrating his group’s and others’ epidemiologic cohort studies, functional and resting neuroimaging studies, postmortem analyses, and cognitive or exercise intervention trials.
- Cited samples include 593 non-demented adults aged 60 or older followed for 4 years, 130 elders who had cognitive evaluation before autopsy, and a preliminary 90-person older-adult Space Fortress training study.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis rather than a new primary study or formal meta-analysis; it draws on a cited systematic review of 22 cohort studies for one pooled estimate.
Limitations
- Stated: epidemiologic evidence is correlational and cannot establish causation; controlled intervention studies are needed, and no study to date has shown changes in the key endpoints of slowed cognitive decline or reduced Alzheimer’s disease risk.
- Stated: clinical use of biomarkers and imaging for reserve is premature because prognostic implications are not fully established, and cognitive training evidence is mixed.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without formal risk-of-bias assessment, many findings come from the author’s own research program, and the interaction between brain reserve and cognitive reserve remains unresolved.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
39 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 No basis given · 10 Supported · 10 Own result · 8 Partly supported · 5 Supported so far · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This idea is supported by a set of studies that suggest that prevalence or incidence of dementia is lower in individuals with larger brains13, 14.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Katzman, 1988, Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques, Ann Neurol source
- Supportedcites [14] Schofield, 1997, An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging, Neurology source
The Discussion (p. 5) reports that smaller head circumference was associated with higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. The paper uses head circumference as an index of premorbid brain size (p. 1), so its finding supports the citing sentence’s hedged association. This study measured prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, not incidence of dementia generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, compared to individuals with lower CR, those with higher CR performed better even when they use the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [42] Steffener, 2011, Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve, Brain Imaging Behav source
The Results (Model C) report that, in older adults, higher cognitive reserve reduced the negative effect of network 2 expression on task performance. The Discussion likewise says older adults with greater reserve maintained performance better as network 2 expression increased. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those who engaged in more leisure activities had 38% less risk of developing dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [24] Scarmeas, 2001, Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Neurology source
The Discussion explicitly states that subjects with high leisure activity had 38% less risk of developing dementia. The Results report a relative risk of 0.62 (95% CI 0.46–0.83), consistent with that figure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The rate of decline is more rapid in individuals with high reserve than those with low reserve, even when accounting for a multitude of other factors that may contribute to disease course27, 28, 46.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [27] Stern, 1999, Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve?, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The DOI was not indexed for paper-scoped Semantic Scholar search, so the cited paper’s full text could not be checked directly. A systematic review, “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis” (search score 0.789), explicitly attributes more rapid memory decline in Alzheimer’s patients with higher education and occupational attainment to Stern et al. (1999). This supports the central claim, though the retrieved passage does not verify which other factors the original analysis accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
No paper-scoped Semantic Scholar snippets were available for Scarmeas et al. (2006). However, “Higher education affects accelerated cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease” explicitly cites Scarmeas et al. (2006) among studies finding more rapid cognitive decline after Alzheimer’s onset in patients with higher education (snippet score 0.534). This supports the claim through a secondary citation, although the available evidence does not independently verify which other factors Scarmeas et al. adjusted for. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Supportedcites [46] Hall, 2007, Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Hall’s (2007) title establishes the finding of delayed accelerated memory decline in people who develop dementia. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Episodic memory performance in a multi-ethnic longitudinal study of 13,037 elderly” describes the same pattern: education is associated with a delayed change point followed by faster decline (score 0.52). Hall’s full text was unavailable in the paper-scoped search, so the specific assertion about accounting for other factors could not be checked directly; the available evidence supports the core paraphrase, not every qualification. (LLM, conf=0.72)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In a young group of subjects we identified an activation network that was expressed during the stimulus presentation phase of both tasks and whose increase in expression with increasing load correlated with CR.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Stern, 2008, A common neural network for cognitive reserve in verbal and object working memory in young but not old, Cereb Cortex source
The Discussion identifies a pattern in young subjects during stimulus presentation whose load-related activation had a similar relationship with cognitive reserve in both the letter and shape tasks. The Canonical Variates Analysis reports significant expression of that pattern in both tasks and relates its load-related expression to cognitive-reserve scores. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Similar analysis demonstrated a comparable protective effect of occupational attainment33 and leisure activities34.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Stern, 1995, Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [34] Scarmeas, 2003, Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Arch Neurol source
The cited paper’s Results report an inverse association between activity scores and cerebral blood flow after controlling for clinical severity, which the authors interpret as consistent with cognitive reserve. The Conclusions describe analogous findings for occupational attainment and note evidence linking leisure activities to reduced dementia risk. The citation supports the leisure-activities part of the sentence; occupational attainment has a separate citation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, at a given level of clinical severity, AD patients with higher education have a more severe pattern of AD-related changes on PET scan than those with lower education44, 45.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Garibotto, 2008, Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [45] Kemppainen, 2008, Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Abstract reports that high- and low-educated patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease had the same degree of cognitive deterioration, while the high-educated group showed greater amyloid-tracer uptake and lower glucose metabolism on PET. The Discussion likewise describes more pronounced amyloid accumulation and neuronal dysfunction in the high-educated group. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In AD patients matched for clinical severity, we found an inverse relationship between resting rCBF and years of education32.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Stern, 1992, Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Procedures (p. 2) state that rCBF was measured under resting conditions. The Results (pp. 2–3) report greater parietotemporal flow reductions with more education in AD groups that did not differ on clinical measures; the relationship at the P3 detector remained significant after controlling for dementia severity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The neural implementation of CR might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation16, 38.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
In “Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR,” Stern explicitly says that the neural implementation of cognitive reserve might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation. The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section also describes them as two proposed components. (LLM, conf=0.95)
- Supportedcites [38] Stern, 2005, Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults, Cereb Cortex source
The Introduction (p. 1) explicitly proposes two complementary facets of the neural implementation of cognitive reserve: neural reserve and neural compensation. The paper then defines and contrasts them in the Introduction (pp. 1–2). (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These observations using cerebral blood flow have been replicated by other groups as well35, 36.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Alexander, 1997, Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Am J Psychiatry source
- Supportedcites [36] Perneczky, 2006, Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry source
The Results report an inverse association between schooling and glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. The Discussion says these findings are supported by other groups’ cerebral-blood-flow studies, while noting that the results do not match exactly because of differences in samples and methods. This paper used FDG-PET rather than measuring cerebral blood flow itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, the concept of CR suggests that the brain actively attempts to cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches15, 16.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Stern, 2002, What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section states that active models such as CR propose that the brain copes with damage using pre-existing cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory processes. This directly supports the paraphrase; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We replicated this observation in patients with incident AD28 and also found more rapid decline in cognitive function in AD patients who engaged in more leisure activities prior to dementia onset29.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Supportedcites [29] Helzner, 2007, Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Using a covariance method to analyze the imaging data, we identified a spatial pattern of fMRI activation that was expressed by both groups and whose expression increased as the task became more difficult.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] Stern, 2012, Task difficulty modulates young-old differences in network expression, Brain Res source
The Functional imaging section identifies a spatial pattern common to young and old participants. The Discussion states that its expression increased logarithmically with task difficulty. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In a follow-up analysis41, we found that atrophy in a key area within the first network (i.e. the one that was used by both young and old) was associated with decreased efficiency in that network and increased utilization of the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [41] Steffener, 2009, The impact of age-related changes on working memory functional activity, Brain Imaging Behav sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Conclusion report that lower grey-matter volume in a region of the primary network was associated with greater secondary-network recruitment. The Discussion interprets this as compensation for an affected primary network, but the Results report no significant association between regional grey-matter volume and primary-network expression; decreased efficiency of that network was not demonstrated. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, Basak et al.50 had elders play a complex role-playing game,”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol Aging sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method > Participants section says older adults were assigned to play Rise of Nations, and the General Discussion reports transfer benefits after 23.5 hours of training. The paper identifies Rise of Nations as a complex real-time strategy game, not a role-playing game. Its Abstract reports improvement on a subset of cognitive tasks, rather than across the entire battery (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In research with young adults, one particular training approach produced excellent improvement in gameplay, but, more importantly, also showed transfer of training to other tasks.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Gopher, 1994, Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight, Hum Factors source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] Gopher, 1989, Practice under changing priorities: an approach to the training of complex skills, Acta Psychol source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Blumen, 2010, Training cognitive control in older adults with the space fortress game: the role of training instructions and basic motor ability, Front Aging Neurosci sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (‘The space fortress game and emphasis change instructions’; page unavailable) reports that emphasis-change instructions improved Space Fortress performance in younger adults compared with standard instructions. It says those instructions *may* be important for transfer, but does not report that this approach demonstrated transfer to other tasks. The General Discussion (page unavailable) says future studies will determine whether such transfer occurs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who rely more on this alternate network can still perform the task, but do so more poorly.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the average scores on a memory test decline by about one point yearly, but in those with higher educational or occupational attainment scores decline by an additional point each year.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first network was used by both young and old subjects, and consisted of areas often associated with working memory.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the second network was primarily characterized by activation in parahippocampal areas and was used consistently only by the older subjects.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these networks is a group of brain areas that seem to work together as the task is harder.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these assumptions, individuals with higher CR will begin their cognitive decline when pathology is more advanced and thus have less time until they reach the point where pathology overwhelms function.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, while in some ways interdependent, brain reserve and CR make independent in addition to synergistic contributions to understanding individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the cognitive or neural mechanism that underlies this reserve is unknown.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, clinicians must be aware that in the presence of pathology there should still be a period of time during which even the most sensitive measures would fail to detect cognitive change.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals with high reserve, by definition, will not demonstrate disease-related clinical symptoms as early as individuals with low levels of reserve.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Since people with greater reserve should be able to tolerate more AD pathology, the onset of clinical dementia should be delayed.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirectn = 593- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is possible that individuals with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have more resilience in the face of age- or disease-related changes.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Only controlled studies can truly establish that some set of interventions or experiences are beneficial.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In schizophrenia, small effects of cognitive remediation were noted, particularly in stable patients and when combined with adjunctive rehabilitation52.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
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In the paper
“While the original observations concern easily measurable variables like education or occupational attainment, more recent studies have delved more deeply into lifestyle factors, cognitively stimulating behaviors, personality factors and the like.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“However, the exact”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“These findings support the possibility that it may be possible to intervene even later in life in order to impart reserve, slow age-related cognitive decline, and prolonged healthy aging.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This is a hopeful idea, since it suggests that changes in lifestyle even later in life might impart reserve against age-related cognitive decline or dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Similarly, focused training has improved working memory capacity and shown transfer of training to nontrained working memory tasks51.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Studies using these endpoints will be very expensive because they will require a large number of participants and will have to be conducted over several years.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While epidemiologic studies can only describe correlations and do not directly test causation, they are useful for deriving hypotheses and exploring ideas.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By shifting emphasis from game to game, participants cannot fall into a fixed strategy. They must develop the ability to deal with the entire task as a whole – skills that might be termed attentional allocation or executive control.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of cognitive reserve, and pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease.
“The assumption is that disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of CR, and that the pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed AD.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
“However, we reasoned that there is common point in all people where the pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No study to date has shown change in slowed rate of cognitive decline in aging or reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“No study to date has shown change in either of these endpoints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology.
“Since the brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to this resilience.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Researchers have long reported that people with more years of formal education are at lower risk for Alzheimer's and other dementias than those with fewer years of formal education.80,[144][145][146][147][148][149]”
From 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2023) · cites this paper as [146]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This concept was theoretically framed by Park and Bischof (2013) as “scaffolding,” similar to the closely related cognitive reserve theory proposed by Stern (2012).”
In the citing paper
“supporting the theory that a greater cognitive reserve could help protect against development of LOAD117.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“The level of education, a surrogate marker of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2012), is an important determinant of the expression of VCI, such that for a given level of neuropathology higher education is associated with less cognitive deficits (Zieren et al., 2013).”
From The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia (2013) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“These findings lead to the suggestion that higher social engagement and support experienced both before and during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic might have had a protective/mitigating role by contributing to cognitive (51) and affective reserve (52).”
From The impact of COVID-19 infection and enforced prolonged social isolation on neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with and without dementia: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that individuals differ in their level of resilience against brain pathology and hence may exhibit differences in cognitive function despite equivalent levels of pathology (Stern, 2002(Stern, , 2012)).”
From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“The theory suggests that individuals differ in their degree of resilience against age-related brain pathology and hence may show differences in cognitive function in relation to an equivalent level of pathology [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve is a theoretical concept that may account for the role of social isolation and its association with cognitive outcomes in later life.”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Such individuals are likely to receive less cognitive stimulation through social contact, resulting in lower cognitive reserve and hence poorer cognitive function [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
Citations
Cites
What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept
STERN, Y. (2002) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617702813248 · Cited by 3,951
Self-citationRunning increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/6368 · Cited by 3,880
Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943
Self-citationRunning enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice
van Praag, H., Christie, B. R., Sejnowski, T. J., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.23.13427 · Cited by 2,904
Neural consequences of enviromental enrichment
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (2000) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/35044558 · Cited by 2,468
A Meta-Analysis of Cognitive Remediation for Schizophrenia: Methodology and Effect Sizes
Wykes, T., Huddy, V., Cellard, C., McGurk, S. R., & Czobor, P. (2011) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10060855 · Cited by 1,693
Training and plasticity of working memory
Klingberg, T. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 · Cited by 1,585
Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease
Stern, Y. (1994) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03510370056032 · Cited by 1,434
Self-citationAgeing, fitness and neurocognitive function
Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., Cohen, N. J., Banich, M. T., McAuley, E., Harrison, C. R., Chason, J., Vakil, E., Bardell, L., Boileau, R. A., et al. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/22682 · Cited by 1,394
Katzman, R., Terry, R., DeTeresa, R., Brown, T., Davies, P., Fuld, P., Renbing, X., & Peck, A. (1988) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410230206 · Cited by 1,225
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Gurland, 1981, The borderlands of dementia: the influence of sociocultural characteristics on rates of dementia occurring in the senium, Aging, 15, 61
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 701–800 of 3,537
Identifying risk factors for cognitive issues in multiple sclerosis
Amato, M. P., Prestipino, E., & Bellinvia, A. (2019) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2019.1590199 · Cited by 41
“Over the past decade, CR has gained attention also in the field of MS, in order to account for the differences between the degree of measured MRI brain damage and the clinical manifestations [168], trying to translate to MS the results obtained in AD research [169,170].”
BackgroundInteraction between cognitive reserve and age moderates effect of lesion load on stroke outcome
Umarova, R. M., Schumacher, L. V., Schmidt, C. S. M., Martin, M., Egger, K. E., Urbach, H., Hennig, J., Klöppel, S., & Kaller, C. P. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-83927-1 · Cited by 40
Oh, S. S., Cho, E., & Kang, B. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-95438-0 · Cited by 42
Sex-Based Memory Advantages and Cognitive Aging: A Challenge to the Cognitive Reserve Construct?
Caselli, R. J., Dueck, A. C., Locke, D. E. C., Baxter, L. C., Woodruff, B. K., & Geda, Y. E. (2015) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617715000016 · Cited by 44
“…on three of four memory measures in the APOE Cohort in quadratic effects (which are more demanding), no similar sex-related effects were found for any measure, including the SRT which was the cornerstone test of Stern’s 1999 CR concept (Stern et al., 1999), even in less demanding linear effects.”
BackgroundFunctional network segregation is associated with attenuated tau spreading in Alzheimer's disease
Steward, A., Biel, D., Brendel, M., Dewenter, A., Roemer, S., Rubinski, A., Luan, Y., Dichgans, M., Ewers, M., Franzmeier, N., et al. (2023) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12867 · Cited by 39
“39 In line with evidence that tau is the key driver of cognitive decline in AD, 3–5 studies have related higher education to higher segregation in older adults 40 while stronger vascular brain changes have been linked to lower brain network segregation, 41 which may explain why patients with…”
Neurological Complications of Conventional and Novel Anticancer Treatments
Alberti, P., Salvalaggio, A., Argyriou, A. A., Bruna, J., Visentin, A., Cavaletti, G., & Briani, C. (2022) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers14246088 · Cited by 40
Factors Affecting Resilience and Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias
Masurkar, A. V., Marsh, K., Morgan, B. E., Leitner, D., & Wısnıewskı, T. (2024) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.27055 · Cited by 42
“126 These mechanisms are thought to arise from either brain reserve during normal aging or neural compensatory processes in the setting of AD/ADRD neuro-pathologic change, either of which may serve as substrates for targeted therapy.”
The interactive effects of age, education, and BMI on cognitive functioning
Kirton, J. W., & Dotson, V. M. (2015) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2015.1082531 · Cited by 39
“…findings, there is evidence that cognitive reserve protects against the development of dementia in older adults, and neuroimaging studies have documented overlapping neural substrates related to cognitive reserve in young and older adults (Duff et al., 2013; Stern, 2012; Stern et al., 2005, 2008).”
BackgroundSoluble amyloid precursor proteins and secretases as Alzheimer's disease biomarkers
Perneczky, R., Alexopoulos, P., & Kurz, A. (2013) · Trends in Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.001 · Cited by 42
Association of Vascular Risk Factors With Cognition in a Multiethnic Sample
Schneider, B. C., Gross, A. L., Bangen, K. J., Skinner, J. C., Benitez, A. M., Glymour, M. M., Sachs, B. C., Shih, R. A., Sisco, S. M., Manly, J. J., et al. (2014) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbu040 · Cited by 37
“…suggests that individuals with high cognitive reserve may be able to tolerate more brain pathology before demonstrating cognitive changes at a relatively rapid rate of decline, whereas those with lower cognitive reserve may demonstrate cognitive declines earlier and at a gradual rate (Stern, 2012).”
Sposito, G., Neri, A. L., & Yassuda, M. S. (2015) · Dementia & Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1590/1980-57642015dn93000010 · Cited by 45
Does education modify motor compensation in Parkinson's disease?
Sunwoo, M. K., Hong, J. Y., Lee, J. J., Lee, P. H., & Sohn, Y. H. (2016) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2016.01.030 · Cited by 38
“The concept of cognitive reserve (CR) may underlie the differences between individuals in their susceptibility to pathologies related to Alzheimer's disease (AD) [1].”
BackgroundInfluentialMeasurement and maintenance of reserve in multiple sclerosis
Sandroff, B. M., Schwartz, C. E., & DeLuca, J. (2016) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-016-8104-5 · Cited by 39
Symptom Management and Lifestyle Modifications in Multiple Sclerosis
Coyle, P. K. (2016) · CONTINUUM Lifelong Learning in Neurology · doi:10.1212/con.0000000000000325 · Cited by 39
“The concept of reserve can be applied broadly to the brain and CNS, in addition to cognition.(49) Individual variability encompasses baseline numbers of neurons and synapses, intrinsic abilities, and vulnerability to age- and disease-related changes as well as compensatory mechanisms and plasticity.”
BackgroundDance Experience and Associations with Cortical Gray Matter Thickness in the Aging Population
Porat, S., Goukasian, N., Hwang, K., Zanto, T. P., Do, T., Pierce, J., Joshi, S. H., Woo, E., & Apostolova, L. G. (2016) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders Extra · doi:10.1159/000449130 · Cited by 41
Correlates of healthcare and financial decision making among older adults without dementia.
Stewart, C. C., Yu, L., Wilson, R. S., Bennett, D. A., & Boyle, P. A. (2018) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000610 · Cited by 42
Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Dementia Risk Among Individuals With Low Education
Rodriguez, F. S., Aranda, M., Lloyd, D. A., & Vega, W. A. (2018) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2018.05.011 · Cited by 42
Neuropsychological Test Norms in Cognitively Intact Oldest-Old
Melikyan, Z. A., Corrada, M. M., Dick, M. B., Whittle, C., Paganini‐Hill, A., & Kawas, C. H. (2019) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617719000122 · Cited by 38
“As education is implicated in cognitive reserve, slower age-related cognitive decline, and overall test-wiseness (de Azeredo Passos et al., 2015; Gasquoine, 2009; Stern, 2012), it can contribute to test performance.”
BackgroundFernández‐Blázquez, M. A., Noriega-Ruiz, B., Ávila‐Villanueva, M., Valentí, M., Payo, B. F., del Ser, T., & Gómez‐Ramírez, J. (2020) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2020.1725803 · Cited by 40
“In terms of the cognitive reserve hypothesis (Stern, 2002, 2012), and based on our results, we propose that the two SES dimensions considered in this study play complementary roles in brain and cognitive functioning.”
Education as Proxy for Cognitive Reserve in a Large Elderly Memory Clinic: ‘Window of Benefit’
Staekenborg, S. S., Kelly, N., Schuur, J., Koster, P., Scherder, E., Tielkes, C. E. M., Scheltens, P., & Claus, J. J. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-191332 · Cited by 40
Liu, L., Zhang, C., Lv, X., Lai, X., Xu, L., Feng, J., Song, Y., Wang, S., & Zhan, S. (2020) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-020-00731-1 · Cited by 40
Lee, J. S., Shin, H. Y., Kim, Y. J., Jang, Y. K., Jung, N., Lee, J., Kim, Y. J., Chun, P., Yang, J., Lee, J., et al. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep24284 · Cited by 43
Cognitive reserve and cognitive performance of patients with focal frontal lesions
MacPherson, S. E., Healy, C., Allerhand, M., Spanò, B., Tudor-Sfetea, C., White, M. J., Smirni, D., Shallice, T., Chan, E., Bozzali, M., et al. (2016) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.12.028 · Cited by 43
“It has also been proposed that the effectiveness of cognitive processing can be shaped by life experiences (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundSánchez‐Benavides, G., for the NEURONORMA Study Team, Peña‐Casanova, J., Casals-Coll, M., Gramunt, N., Molinuevo, J. L., Gómez‐Ansón, B., Aguilar, M., Robles, A., Antúnez, C., et al. (2014) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-132186 · Cited by 39
“It is well-known that life exposures such as education, occupation, and leisure activity can provide some protection against age- or AD related pathology [82].”
Defining successful aging: the need to distinguish pathways from outcomes
Cheng, S. (2013) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610213001713 · Cited by 43
“In the realm of cognitive aging, active and sustained participation in physical and intellectually stimulating activities in order to build up cognitive reserve (Fratiglioni and Wang, 2007; Stern, 2012) cannot be ignored.”
BackgroundGranger, M. W., Franko, B., Taylor, M. W., Messier, C., George‐Hyslop, P. S., & Bennett, S. A. L. (2016) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-150587 · Cited by 41
“Here, brain reserve refers to differences in brain structure or synaptic densities that enable individuals to compensate for declining neural function resulting from A toxicity [22, 23].”
BackgroundChiu, H., Chan, P.-T., Kao, C., Chu, H., Chang, P., Hsiao, S. S., Liu, D., Chang, W., & Chou, K. (2017) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.13519 · Cited by 41
The smartphone in the memory clinic: A study of patient and care partner’s utilisation habits
Benge, J. F., Dinh, K. L., Logue, E. M., Phenis, R. A., Dasse, M. N., & Scullin, M. K. (2018) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2018.1459307 · Cited by 37
“In clinical samples, further work is necessary to determine the extent to which smartphone use reflects economic disparities versus one’s cognitive capacity to use the smartphone (e.g., education is one measure of cognitive reserve; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundFelice, S. D., & Holland, C. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01973 · Cited by 39
“…specifically test for compensatory strategies, this interpretation is consistent with the fact that higher educational level – thought to increase cognitive reserve, which in turn supports cognitive compensation (Stern, 2009, 2012) – was related to better performance in the middle-old group only.”
BackgroundResultLiu, T., Luo, H., Tang, J. Y. ‐., & Wong, G. H. Y. (2018) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1539833 · Cited by 38
“ment, and an active and engaging lifestyle (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundSaloner, R., Campbell, L. M., Serrano, V. B., Montoya, J. L., Pasipanodya, E. C., Paolillo, E. W., Franklin, D. R., Ellis, R. J., Letendre, S. L., Collier, A. C., et al. (2019) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617719000018 · Cited by 38
“, 2017), cognitive reserve is considered to reflect a combination of geneticallydriven intellectual capacity and cognitively stimulating life experiences that promote resilience against age-related neurocognitive decline (Daffner, 2010; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundMoura, A. R., Lee, S., Habeck, C. G., Razlighi, Q. R., & Stern, Y. (2019) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.08.024 · Cited by 36
“Detailed information about the 2 studies is provided in previous publications (Habeck et al., 2016; Stern, 2012; Stern et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationConversion of Mild Cognitive Impairment to Alzheimer Disease in Monolingual and Bilingual Patients
Berkes, M., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Troyer, A. K., & Freedman, M. (2020) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0000000000000373 · Cited by 42
Grodzinski, B., Durham, R., Mowforth, O. D., et al. (2020) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afaa236 · Cited by 38
Liao, S., Qi, L., Xiong, J., Yan, J., & Wang, R. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18010021 · Cited by 40
“During the process of caretaking activities, such as living arrangements for grandchildren and the direct or indirect transmission of individual experience and knowledge, they might strengthen their mental stimulation and cognitive function by practicing their cognitive skills in learning, thinking, and reasoning [80].”
BackgroundSablonnière, J. D. L., Tastevin, M., Lavoie, M., & Laforce, R. J. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11091209 · Cited by 39
“This finding is not surprising and could be explained by the fact that patients with lower functional and cognitive scores at baseline have either a more aggressive disease or a lower cognitive reserve [60,61].”
ResultCognitive reserve in frontotemporal degeneration
Placek, K., Massimo, L. M., Olm, C. A., Ternes, K., Firn, K., Deerlin, V. M. V., Lee, E. B., Trojanowski, J. Q., Lee, V. M. ‐., Irwin, D. J., et al. (2016) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000003250 · Cited by 40
Serum NfL and GFAP as biomarkers of progressive neurodegeneration in TBI
Shahim, P., Pham, D. L., van der Merwe, A. J., Moore, B., Chou, Y., Lippa, S. M., Kenney, K., Diaz-Arrastia, R. R., & Chan, L. E. (2024) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13898 · Cited by 40
“47 As is evident by the findings in this study, the relationship between cognitive performance and neurodegeneration after TBI is complex, and suggests two distinct processes, in which there is an interaction between them early on, followed by a divergence in the years after injury.”
BackgroundCan insulin signaling pathways be targeted to transport Aβ out of the brain?
Vandal, M., Bourassa, P., & Calon, F. (2015) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2015.00114 · Cited by 37
“, 2013) because other protective mechanisms are in play, including the socalled cognitive reserve (Rentz et al., 2010; Stern, 2012).”
Paradigm Shift: Semantic Memory Decline as a Biomarker of Preclinical Alzheimer’S Disease
Venneri, A., Mitolo, M., & Marco, M. D. (2015) · Biomarkers in Medicine · doi:10.2217/bmm.15.53 · Cited by 39
“Furthermore, other factors such as, for example, cognitive reserve might mask/compensate for the effect of neurodegeneration [10].”
BackgroundBipolar Depression and Cognitive Impairment
Depp, C. A., Dev, S. I., & Eyler, L. T. (2015) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2015.09.004 · Cited by 38
Alosco, M. L., Mez, J. B., Kowall, N. W., Stein, T. D., Goldstein, L. E., Cantu, R. C., Katz, D. I., Solomon, T. M., Kiernan, P. T., Murphy, L., et al. (2016) · Journal of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.16030043 · Cited by 37
“CR has been theorized to account for interindividual variability in the clinical course of normative aging and Alzheimer’s disease (AD), with higher CR associated with delayed onset of cognitive impairment and incident dementia.(7,8) Although CR has traditionally been linked to cognitive impairment in AD, CR has been…”
BackgroundFinger tapping impairments are highly sensitive for evaluating upper motor neuron lesions
Shirani, A., Newton, B. D., & Okuda, D. T. (2017) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-017-0829-y · Cited by 37
“However, differences in the resilience of pre-existing networks may play a role such that an individual with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have a greater capacity in tolerating neuropathologic processes [23].”
BackgroundLópez-Higes, R., Martín-Aragoneses, M. T., Rubio-Valdehita, S., et al. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00023 · Cited by 37
“These factors are associated with the concept of cognitive reserve; that is, the ability to optimize an individual’s performance in different tasks through the use of alternative neural circuits (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundGoyal, D., Tjandra, D., Migrino, R. Q., Giordani, B., Syed, Z., Wiens, J., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2018) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1016/j.dadm.2018.06.007 · Cited by 42
“This protective effect of higher education has previously been referred to as higher cognitive reserve [42,43].”
BackgroundMRI-based biomarkers of accelerated aging and dementia risk in midlife: how close are we?
Elliott, M. L. (2020) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2020.101075 · Cited by 39
Blanken, A. E., & Nation, D. A. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-200245 · Cited by 37
“Higher educational and occupational attainment are thought to be protective factors in the context of dementia [165].”
Personality traits, cognitive states, and mortality in older adulthood.
Yoneda, T. B., Graham, E. K., Lozinski, T., Bennett, D. A., Mroczek, D. K., Piccinin, A. M., Hofer, S. M., & Terrera, G. M. (2022) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000418 · Cited by 41
Vleet, T. V., Degutis, J. M., Merzenich, M. M., Simpson, G. V., Zomet, A., & Dabit, S. (2016) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2016.05.015 · Cited by 39
Downer, B. G., García, M. A., Saenz, J. L., Markides, K. S., & Wong, R. (2017) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027517701447 · Cited by 37
“These anatomical and functional characteristics of the brain can allow for older adults with more education to sustain greater damage to the brain before cognitive symptoms of dementia are observed (Stern, 2002, 2012).”
BackgroundNon-Pharmacological Management for Patients with Frontotemporal Dementia: A Systematic Review
Shinagawa, S., Nakajima, S., Plitman, E., Graff‐Guerrero, A., Mimura, M., Nakayama, K., & Miller, B. L. (2015) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-142109 · Cited by 45
“Furthermore, educational level was considered to affect cognitive abilities, supporting the idea that cognitive reserve constitutes one of the major factors to cope with pathology in patients with AD [31, 32].”
BackgroundSetayesh, S., & Rahimi, G. R. M. (2023) · Geriatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.gerinurse.2023.08.022 · Cited by 46
Punzi, M., Sestieri, C., Picerni, E., Chiarelli, A. M., Padulo, C., Pizzi, A. D., Tullo, M. G., Tosoni, A., Granzotto, A., Penna, S. D., et al. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27429 · Cited by 38
Sandry, J. D., DeLuca, J., & Chiaravalloti, N. D. (2014) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-014-7523-4 · Cited by 38
“The CR hypothesis is well-supported in Aging and Alzheimer’s disease [6], multiple sclerosis (MS) [7] and Parkinson’s disease [8] as well as other neurological populations including persons with J.”
Calderón-Garcidueñas, L., Mora-Tiscareño, A., Franco-Lira, M., Cross, J. V., Engle, R., Aragón-Flores, M., Gómez-Garza, G., Jewells, V., Medina-Cortina, H., Solorio, E., et al. (2013) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2013.00104 · Cited by 36
Hale, J. M. (2017) · Demography · doi:10.1007/s13524-017-0629-4 · Cited by 35
Declining Incident Dementia Rates Across Four Population-Based Birth Cohorts
Sullivan, K., Dodge, H. H., Hughes, T. F., Chang, C. H., Zhu, X., Liu, A., & Ganguli, M. (2018) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/gly236 · Cited by 40
“Higher educational attainment may reflect higher intellectual capacity, where educational opportunities are uniform, but education may also promote synaptic density and dendritic branching, resulting in higher cognitive reserve and resilience against late-life decline (30).”
BackgroundPan, K., Xu, W., Mangialasche, F., Dekhtyar, S., Fratiglioni, L., & Wang, H. (2018) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-180870 · Cited by 36
Cespón, J., & Carreiras, M. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.030 · Cited by 39
Yoneda, T. B., Lewis, N. A., Knight, J. E., Rush, J., Vendittelli, R., Kleineidam, L., Hyun, J., Piccinin, A. M., Hofer, S. M., Hoogendijk, E. O., et al. (2020) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glaa268 · Cited by 40
“An individuals’ accumulation of cognitive reserve may then differentially affect the likelihood of cognitive status transitions; individuals higher in reserve typically have higher neuropathological burden prior to the emergence of cognitive symptoms and tend to progress more quickly through the stages of cognitive de…”
BackgroundPhysiology of Cerebellar Reserve: Redundancy and Plasticity of a Modular Machine
Mitoma, H., Kakei, S., Yamaguchi, K., & Manto, M. U. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22094777 · Cited by 38
“we define reserve as a moderator between pathology and outcome [5].”
BackgroundTracing Neurological Diseases in the Presymptomatic Phase: Insights From Neurofilament Light Chain
Gaetani, L., Parnetti, L., Calabresi, P., & Filippo, M. D. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.672954 · Cited by 37
“As a consequence, neuronal loss begins before clinical symptoms, and remains below the clinical threshold the longer, the higher the neuronal functional reserve (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundCognitive Dysfunction after Heart Disease: A Manifestation of the Heart‐Brain Axis
Xu, C., Tao, X., Ma, X., Zhao, R., & Cao, Z. (2021) · Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity · doi:10.1155/2021/4899688 · Cited by 53
“This may be due to the higher cognitive reserve of young individuals, which can prevent the harmful effects of clinical heart disease on cognitive ability [17].”
BackgroundPerception and Use of Compensation Strategies for Gait Impairment by Persons With Parkinson Disease
Tosserams, A., Wit, L., Sturkenboom, I. H. W. M., Nijkrake, M. J., Bloem, B. R., & Nonnekes, J. H. (2021) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000012633 · Cited by 39
“It is possible that a certain degree of cognitive reserve is imperative to be able to compensate for gait impairments.(31) The potential effect of impaired cognition might be particularly relevant for compensation strategies that are inherently cognitive tasks such as internal cueing (e.”
BackgroundDuan, D., Dong, Y., Zhang, H., Zhao, Y., Diao, Y., Cui, Y., Wang, J., Chai, Q., & Liu, Z. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep43816 · Cited by 37
Sapkota, S., Huan, T., Tran, T., Zheng, J., Camicioli, R. M., Li, L., & Dixon, R. A. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00296 · Cited by 36
“Education has widely been used as a proxy for cognitive reserve (Tucker and Stern, 2011; Stern, 2012, 2017).”
BackgroundMethodDynamic functional connectivity patterns associated with dementia risk
Dautricourt, S., Gonneaud, J., Landeau, B., Calhoun, V. D., de Florès, R., Poisnel, G., Bougacha, S., Ourry, V., Touron, E., Kuhn, E., et al. (2022) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-022-01006-7 · Cited by 41
“Those risk and protective factors are thought to modulate cognitive reserve, possibly through their impact on the integrity and efficiency of functional brain networks [3].”
BackgroundAnxiety and cognitive functioning in the Maastricht study: A cross-sectional population study
Gulpers, B. J. A., Verhey, F. R. J., Eussen, S. J. P. M., Schram, M. T., de Galan, B. E., van Boxtel, M. P. J., Stehouwer, C. D. A., & Köhler, S. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.072 · Cited by 39
Bransby, L., Rosenich, E., Maruff, P. T., & Lim, Y. Y. (2023) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.14283/jpad.2023.119 · Cited by 37
“It is possible that any neurological benefits of cognitive and social engagement (i.e., cognitive reserve) (90) occur as a lifelong process, suggesting that low cognitive engagement and social isolation should be addressed as early as possible.”
BackgroundFittipaldi, S., Legaz, A., Maito, M. A., Hernandez, H., Altschuler, F., Canziani, V., Moguilner, S., Gillan, C. M., Castillo, J., Lillo, P., et al. (2024) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-023-00164-3 · Cited by 44
“…cortex for the DMN 43 , MNI coordinates 3,−54, 27 and −3, −54, 27; the middle frontal gyri for the EN 44 , MNI coordinates 30, −2, 62 and −30, −2, 62; the primary visual cortex for the VN 45 , MNI coordinates 8, −92, 8 and −8, −92, 8; and the primary motor cortex for the MN 46 , MNI coordinates…”
InfluentialImpact of homocysteine on cortical perfusion and cognitive decline in mild A lzheimer's dementia
Huang, C., Chang, W. ‐., Huang, S., et al. (2013) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.12159 · Cited by 35
“The results suggest that factors such as individual cognitive reservation [25] or disease duration, in addition to tHcy level, may be related more closely to the initial cognitive state.”
BackgroundCognitive Reserve in Elderly and Its Connection with Cognitive Performance: A Systematic Review
Farina, M., Paloski, L. H., de Oliveira, C. R., Argimon, I. I. D. L., & Irigaray, T. Q. (2017) · Ageing International · doi:10.1007/s12126-017-9295-5 · Cited by 35
Waldthaler, J., Rothenfusser, E., Schlaier, J. R., Bogdahn, U., & Lange, M. (2017) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2017.08.3241 · Cited by 35
“The concept of cognitive reserve describes the functional resilience of the brain to neuropathological damage which is enhanced by educational and occupational attainment as well as enriched lifestyle and leisure activities [1].”
BackgroundMasouleh, S. K., Beyer, F., Lampe, L., Loeffler, M., Luck, T., Riedel-Heller, S. G., Schroeter, M. L., Stümvoll, M., Villringer, A., & Witte, A. V. (2017) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1177/0271678x17729111 · Cited by 35
Mart'inez, J. H., López, M. E., Ariza, P., Chavez, M., Pineda-Pardo, J., López-Sanz, D., Gil, P., Maestú, F., & Buldú, J. M. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-28747-6 · Cited by 29
Cognitive composite score association with Alzheimer’s disease plaque and tangle pathology
Malek‐Ahmadi, M. H., Chen, K., Perez, S. E., He, A., & Mufson, E. J. (2018) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-018-0401-z · Cited by 38
The impact of bilingualism on brain structure and function in Huntington's disease
Martínez‐Horta, S., Moreu, A., Pérez‐Pérez, J., Sampedro, F., Horta‐Barba, A., Pagonabarraga, J., Gómez‐Ansón, B., Lozano‐Martinez, G. A., López-Mora, D. A., Camacho, V., et al. (2018) · Parkinsonism & Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2018.09.017 · Cited by 35
Decision Tree for Early Detection of Cognitive Impairment by Community Pharmacists
Climent, M. T., Pardo, J., Muñoz–Almaraz, F. J., Guerrero, M. D., & Moreno, L. (2018) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.01232 · Cited by 34
“There is a reduced risk of developing AD in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundAlkan, E., Taporoski, T. P., Sterr, A., von Schantz, M., Vallada, H., Krieger, J. E., Pereira, A. C., Alvim, R. D. O., Horimoto, A. R. V. R., Pompéia, S., et al. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-40630-6 · Cited by 34
Oi, K., & Haas, S. A. (2019) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146519867924 · Cited by 37
“This improves adult socioeconomic position via increased occupational attainment, which in turn provides for the buildup of cognitive reserve, a mental faculty that constantly mitigates neurological damage (Stern 2012; Whalley et al. 2004).”
BackgroundGorges, M., Kunz, M. S., Müller, H., Liepelt‐Scarfone, I., Storch, A., Dodel, R. C., Hilker‐Roggendorf, R., Berg, D., Kalbe, E., Braak, H., et al. (2019) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24884 · Cited by 35
“(c) Caudal ACC thickness in PD-N individuals at study entry was significantly correlated with the CERAD total score (p = .019) progression rate in the predamaged brains leads to MCI (Kalbe et al., 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialCoutinho, A. M., Busatto, G. F., Porto, F. H. D. G., Faria, D. D. P., Ono, C. R., Garcez, A. T., Squarzoni, P., Duran, F., de Oliveira, M. O., Trés, E. S., et al. (2020) · European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging · doi:10.1007/s00259-020-04714-0 · Cited by 36
Chen, G., Zhao, M., Yang, K. Y., Lin, H., Han, C., Wang, X., & Han, Y. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-201170 · Cited by 35
“According to the theory of CR, individuals with high CR can tolerate more AD pathology and decline in cognitive function will be delayed at the early stage of AD, while the rate of decline in cognition is more rapid in individuals with high CR than those with low CR at the advanced stage of AD [35].”
Microglia and modifiable life factors: Potential contributions to cognitive resilience in aging
Duggan, M. R., & Parikh, V. (2021) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113207 · Cited by 38
Siddiqui, T., Coşacak, M. İ., Popova, S. D., Bhattarai, P., Yılmaz, E., Lee, A., Min, Y., Wang, X., Allen, M., İş, Ö., et al. (2023) · npj Regenerative Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41536-023-00311-5 · Cited by 37
“5b and Supplementary Data 7, 8).”
Ward, D. D., Summers, M. J., Saunders, N. L., Ritchie, K. A., Summers, J. J., & Vickers, J. C. (2015) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2015.82 · Cited by 35
Ihle, A., Gouveia, É. R., de Gouveia, B. R. F. O., Freitas, D. L., Jurema, J., Odim, A. P., & Kliegel, M. (2017) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610217000795 · Cited by 36
“First published online 25 May 2017. performance (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMiller, K. B., Mi, K. L., Nelson, G. A., Norman, R. B., Patel, Z. S., & Huff, J. L. (2022) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2022.1008640 · Cited by 38
“A high cognitive reserve suggests that someone may be able to tolerate more age-related brain changes or pathology and still maintain function especially under stress and high workloads (Stern, 2009, 2012).”
BackgroundYu, Y., Lv, J., Liu, J., Chen, Y., Chen, K., & Yang, Y. (2022) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-022-03473-x · Cited by 35
“Social engagement and a larger social network size could increase cognitive reserve and prevent cognitive decline [50, 51].”
BackgroundNeuropathological Changes in Aging Brain
Xekardaki, A., Kövari, E., Gold, G., Papadimitropoulou, A., Giacobini, E., Herrmann, F. R., Giannakopoulos, P., & Bouras, C. (2014) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-08939-3_6 · Cited by 35
“Cognitive reserve is thought to be the moderator between pathological brain changes and clinical expression [41, 43].”
BackgroundNeuropsychological assessments of cognitive aging in monolingual and bilingual older adults
Anderson, J. A. E., Saleemi, S., & Bialystok, E. (2016) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2016.08.001 · Cited by 40
“This hypothesis speaks directly to the cognitive reserve hypothesis, where experience such as education, exercise, training, or bilingualism can yield protective effects in the face of neural atrophy (Schweizer et al., 2012; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialIhle, A., Gouveia, É. R., de Gouveia, B. R. F. O., Freitas, D. L., Jurema, J., Machado, F. T., & Kliegel, M. (2017) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264317708883 · Cited by 34
Zhao, Q., Liu, M., Ha, L., Zhou, Y., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2019.00486 · Cited by 39
“Also, we got the similar result that the females are more likely to develop AD compared with the males, and education years are not declined with the cognitive function as reported (36, 37).”
ResultIhle, A., Zuber, S., Gouveia, É. R., de Gouveia, B. R. F. O., Mella, N., Desrichard, O., Cullati, S., Oris, M., Maurer, J., & Kliegel, M. (2019) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000501822 · Cited by 30
Rosenberg, A., Solomon, A., Jelić, V., Hagman, G., Bogdanović, N., & Kivipelto, M. (2019) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-019-0557-1 · Cited by 34
Effects of Lifelong Musicianship on White Matter Integrity and Cognitive Brain Reserve
Andrews, E., Eierud, C., Banks, D., Harshbarger, T., Michael, A., & Rammell., C. (2021) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci11010067 · Cited by 26
“Neurological (brain) reserve is generally considered to be more biologically and genetically based, and it is articulated in the following way by Stern (2012) and Guzmán-Vélez (2015) [3,4]: The neurological brain reserve hypothesis proposes that individuals generally differ in the numbers of neurons and synapses avail…”
BackgroundInfluentialBiel, D., Steiger, T. K., & Bunzeck, N. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-88840-1 · Cited by 38
Fredriksen‐Goldsen, K. I., Jung, H. H., Kim, H., Petros, R., & Emlet, C. A. (2021) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/08982643211046466 · Cited by 35
“, 1998), disadvantaged socioeconomic status (Jackson & Cooper, 2017; Stern, 2012), and discrimination experiences (Juster et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialWang, W., Si, H., Yu, R., Qiao, X., Jin, Y., Ji, L., Liu, Q., Bian, Y., Yu, J., & Wang, C. (2021) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2021.2011835 · Cited by 33
“More importantly, people with SCD are thought to have a relatively reserved cognitive function and more readily available cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012; Xue et al., 2019), both of which increase the likelihood that they will benefit from early prevention interventions before apparent cognitive difficulties arise.”
BackgroundCortical Proteins and Individual Differences in Cognitive Resilience in Older Adults
Zammit, A. R., Yu, L., Petyuk, V., Schneider, J. A., Jager, P. L. D., Klein, H.-U., Bennett, D. A., & Buchman, A. S. (2022) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000200017 · Cited by 34
Metadata
- Authors
- Stern, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stern, Yaakov
- ORCID
- Stern, Yaakov
- Venue
- The Lancet Neurology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1006-1012
- ISSN
- 1474-4422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3507991
- OpenAlex
- W2144907160
- Cited by
- 3,557
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 412 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 311 · 2023: 343 · 2022: 281 · 2021: 303 · 2020: 350 · 2019: 292 · 2018: 244 · 2017: 213 · 2016: 176 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 93 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- The Lancet Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026158, R01AG014671)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, brain reserve, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive aging, dementia risk, educational attainment, occupational attainment, leisure
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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