The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 54 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Open accessAbstract
The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that cognitive reserve explains why people differ in how much Alzheimer’s disease pathology or age-related brain change they can tolerate while still functioning. It synthesizes epidemiologic, neuroimaging, postmortem, and intervention evidence, and concludes that reserve is modifiable but that causal interventions remain unproven.
Key findings
- Reserve is split into brain reserve, a more passive quantitative tolerance tied to brain size or neurons/synapses, and cognitive reserve, an active functional process in which pre-existing or compensatory networks help cope with damage.
- Epidemiologic studies cited found that fewer than 8 years of education carried 2.2 times higher dementia risk, low occupational attainment carried 2.25 times higher risk, and greater leisure activity was linked to 38% lower risk; a review of 22 cohort studies estimated higher reserve reduced dementia risk by 46%.
- After Alzheimer’s disease becomes clinically apparent, higher reserve is associated with faster decline: memory scores fell about one point yearly on average, with an additional point yearly in those with higher education or occupation.
- Imaging and autopsy evidence indicated that at matched clinical severity, higher education was linked to greater parietotemporal blood-flow deficit and, in 130 elders, each additional year of education reduced the pathology–cognition association by 0.088 standard units; fMRI work distinguished neural reserve from neural compensation.
Methods
- Narrative review by the author, integrating his group’s and others’ epidemiologic cohort studies, functional and resting neuroimaging studies, postmortem analyses, and cognitive or exercise intervention trials.
- Cited samples include 593 non-demented adults aged 60 or older followed for 4 years, 130 elders who had cognitive evaluation before autopsy, and a preliminary 90-person older-adult Space Fortress training study.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis rather than a new primary study or formal meta-analysis; it draws on a cited systematic review of 22 cohort studies for one pooled estimate.
Limitations
- Stated: epidemiologic evidence is correlational and cannot establish causation; controlled intervention studies are needed, and no study to date has shown changes in the key endpoints of slowed cognitive decline or reduced Alzheimer’s disease risk.
- Stated: clinical use of biomarkers and imaging for reserve is premature because prognostic implications are not fully established, and cognitive training evidence is mixed.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without formal risk-of-bias assessment, many findings come from the author’s own research program, and the interaction between brain reserve and cognitive reserve remains unresolved.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
39 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 No basis given · 10 Supported · 10 Own result · 8 Partly supported · 5 Supported so far · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This idea is supported by a set of studies that suggest that prevalence or incidence of dementia is lower in individuals with larger brains13, 14.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Katzman, 1988, Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques, Ann Neurol source
- Supportedcites [14] Schofield, 1997, An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging, Neurology source
The Discussion (p. 5) reports that smaller head circumference was associated with higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. The paper uses head circumference as an index of premorbid brain size (p. 1), so its finding supports the citing sentence’s hedged association. This study measured prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, not incidence of dementia generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, compared to individuals with lower CR, those with higher CR performed better even when they use the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [42] Steffener, 2011, Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve, Brain Imaging Behav source
The Results (Model C) report that, in older adults, higher cognitive reserve reduced the negative effect of network 2 expression on task performance. The Discussion likewise says older adults with greater reserve maintained performance better as network 2 expression increased. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those who engaged in more leisure activities had 38% less risk of developing dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [24] Scarmeas, 2001, Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Neurology source
The Discussion explicitly states that subjects with high leisure activity had 38% less risk of developing dementia. The Results report a relative risk of 0.62 (95% CI 0.46–0.83), consistent with that figure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The rate of decline is more rapid in individuals with high reserve than those with low reserve, even when accounting for a multitude of other factors that may contribute to disease course27, 28, 46.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [27] Stern, 1999, Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve?, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The DOI was not indexed for paper-scoped Semantic Scholar search, so the cited paper’s full text could not be checked directly. A systematic review, “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis” (search score 0.789), explicitly attributes more rapid memory decline in Alzheimer’s patients with higher education and occupational attainment to Stern et al. (1999). This supports the central claim, though the retrieved passage does not verify which other factors the original analysis accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
No paper-scoped Semantic Scholar snippets were available for Scarmeas et al. (2006). However, “Higher education affects accelerated cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease” explicitly cites Scarmeas et al. (2006) among studies finding more rapid cognitive decline after Alzheimer’s onset in patients with higher education (snippet score 0.534). This supports the claim through a secondary citation, although the available evidence does not independently verify which other factors Scarmeas et al. adjusted for. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Supportedcites [46] Hall, 2007, Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Hall’s (2007) title establishes the finding of delayed accelerated memory decline in people who develop dementia. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Episodic memory performance in a multi-ethnic longitudinal study of 13,037 elderly” describes the same pattern: education is associated with a delayed change point followed by faster decline (score 0.52). Hall’s full text was unavailable in the paper-scoped search, so the specific assertion about accounting for other factors could not be checked directly; the available evidence supports the core paraphrase, not every qualification. (LLM, conf=0.72)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In a young group of subjects we identified an activation network that was expressed during the stimulus presentation phase of both tasks and whose increase in expression with increasing load correlated with CR.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Stern, 2008, A common neural network for cognitive reserve in verbal and object working memory in young but not old, Cereb Cortex source
The Discussion identifies a pattern in young subjects during stimulus presentation whose load-related activation had a similar relationship with cognitive reserve in both the letter and shape tasks. The Canonical Variates Analysis reports significant expression of that pattern in both tasks and relates its load-related expression to cognitive-reserve scores. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Similar analysis demonstrated a comparable protective effect of occupational attainment33 and leisure activities34.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Stern, 1995, Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [34] Scarmeas, 2003, Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Arch Neurol source
The cited paper’s Results report an inverse association between activity scores and cerebral blood flow after controlling for clinical severity, which the authors interpret as consistent with cognitive reserve. The Conclusions describe analogous findings for occupational attainment and note evidence linking leisure activities to reduced dementia risk. The citation supports the leisure-activities part of the sentence; occupational attainment has a separate citation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, at a given level of clinical severity, AD patients with higher education have a more severe pattern of AD-related changes on PET scan than those with lower education44, 45.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Garibotto, 2008, Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [45] Kemppainen, 2008, Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Abstract reports that high- and low-educated patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease had the same degree of cognitive deterioration, while the high-educated group showed greater amyloid-tracer uptake and lower glucose metabolism on PET. The Discussion likewise describes more pronounced amyloid accumulation and neuronal dysfunction in the high-educated group. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In AD patients matched for clinical severity, we found an inverse relationship between resting rCBF and years of education32.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Stern, 1992, Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Procedures (p. 2) state that rCBF was measured under resting conditions. The Results (pp. 2–3) report greater parietotemporal flow reductions with more education in AD groups that did not differ on clinical measures; the relationship at the P3 detector remained significant after controlling for dementia severity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The neural implementation of CR might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation16, 38.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
In “Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR,” Stern explicitly says that the neural implementation of cognitive reserve might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation. The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section also describes them as two proposed components. (LLM, conf=0.95)
- Supportedcites [38] Stern, 2005, Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults, Cereb Cortex source
The Introduction (p. 1) explicitly proposes two complementary facets of the neural implementation of cognitive reserve: neural reserve and neural compensation. The paper then defines and contrasts them in the Introduction (pp. 1–2). (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These observations using cerebral blood flow have been replicated by other groups as well35, 36.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Alexander, 1997, Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Am J Psychiatry source
- Supportedcites [36] Perneczky, 2006, Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry source
The Results report an inverse association between schooling and glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. The Discussion says these findings are supported by other groups’ cerebral-blood-flow studies, while noting that the results do not match exactly because of differences in samples and methods. This paper used FDG-PET rather than measuring cerebral blood flow itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, the concept of CR suggests that the brain actively attempts to cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches15, 16.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Stern, 2002, What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section states that active models such as CR propose that the brain copes with damage using pre-existing cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory processes. This directly supports the paraphrase; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We replicated this observation in patients with incident AD28 and also found more rapid decline in cognitive function in AD patients who engaged in more leisure activities prior to dementia onset29.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Supportedcites [29] Helzner, 2007, Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Using a covariance method to analyze the imaging data, we identified a spatial pattern of fMRI activation that was expressed by both groups and whose expression increased as the task became more difficult.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] Stern, 2012, Task difficulty modulates young-old differences in network expression, Brain Res source
The Functional imaging section identifies a spatial pattern common to young and old participants. The Discussion states that its expression increased logarithmically with task difficulty. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In a follow-up analysis41, we found that atrophy in a key area within the first network (i.e. the one that was used by both young and old) was associated with decreased efficiency in that network and increased utilization of the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [41] Steffener, 2009, The impact of age-related changes on working memory functional activity, Brain Imaging Behav sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Conclusion report that lower grey-matter volume in a region of the primary network was associated with greater secondary-network recruitment. The Discussion interprets this as compensation for an affected primary network, but the Results report no significant association between regional grey-matter volume and primary-network expression; decreased efficiency of that network was not demonstrated. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, Basak et al.50 had elders play a complex role-playing game,”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol Aging sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method > Participants section says older adults were assigned to play Rise of Nations, and the General Discussion reports transfer benefits after 23.5 hours of training. The paper identifies Rise of Nations as a complex real-time strategy game, not a role-playing game. Its Abstract reports improvement on a subset of cognitive tasks, rather than across the entire battery (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In research with young adults, one particular training approach produced excellent improvement in gameplay, but, more importantly, also showed transfer of training to other tasks.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Gopher, 1994, Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight, Hum Factors source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] Gopher, 1989, Practice under changing priorities: an approach to the training of complex skills, Acta Psychol source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Blumen, 2010, Training cognitive control in older adults with the space fortress game: the role of training instructions and basic motor ability, Front Aging Neurosci sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (‘The space fortress game and emphasis change instructions’; page unavailable) reports that emphasis-change instructions improved Space Fortress performance in younger adults compared with standard instructions. It says those instructions *may* be important for transfer, but does not report that this approach demonstrated transfer to other tasks. The General Discussion (page unavailable) says future studies will determine whether such transfer occurs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who rely more on this alternate network can still perform the task, but do so more poorly.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the average scores on a memory test decline by about one point yearly, but in those with higher educational or occupational attainment scores decline by an additional point each year.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first network was used by both young and old subjects, and consisted of areas often associated with working memory.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the second network was primarily characterized by activation in parahippocampal areas and was used consistently only by the older subjects.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these networks is a group of brain areas that seem to work together as the task is harder.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these assumptions, individuals with higher CR will begin their cognitive decline when pathology is more advanced and thus have less time until they reach the point where pathology overwhelms function.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, while in some ways interdependent, brain reserve and CR make independent in addition to synergistic contributions to understanding individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the cognitive or neural mechanism that underlies this reserve is unknown.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, clinicians must be aware that in the presence of pathology there should still be a period of time during which even the most sensitive measures would fail to detect cognitive change.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals with high reserve, by definition, will not demonstrate disease-related clinical symptoms as early as individuals with low levels of reserve.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Since people with greater reserve should be able to tolerate more AD pathology, the onset of clinical dementia should be delayed.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirectn = 593- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is possible that individuals with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have more resilience in the face of age- or disease-related changes.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
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In the paper
“Only controlled studies can truly establish that some set of interventions or experiences are beneficial.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In schizophrenia, small effects of cognitive remediation were noted, particularly in stable patients and when combined with adjunctive rehabilitation52.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
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plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
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In the paper
“While the original observations concern easily measurable variables like education or occupational attainment, more recent studies have delved more deeply into lifestyle factors, cognitively stimulating behaviors, personality factors and the like.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
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In the paper
“However, the exact”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“These findings support the possibility that it may be possible to intervene even later in life in order to impart reserve, slow age-related cognitive decline, and prolonged healthy aging.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This is a hopeful idea, since it suggests that changes in lifestyle even later in life might impart reserve against age-related cognitive decline or dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
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In the paper
“Similarly, focused training has improved working memory capacity and shown transfer of training to nontrained working memory tasks51.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Studies using these endpoints will be very expensive because they will require a large number of participants and will have to be conducted over several years.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While epidemiologic studies can only describe correlations and do not directly test causation, they are useful for deriving hypotheses and exploring ideas.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By shifting emphasis from game to game, participants cannot fall into a fixed strategy. They must develop the ability to deal with the entire task as a whole – skills that might be termed attentional allocation or executive control.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of cognitive reserve, and pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease.
“The assumption is that disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of CR, and that the pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed AD.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
“However, we reasoned that there is common point in all people where the pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No study to date has shown change in slowed rate of cognitive decline in aging or reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“No study to date has shown change in either of these endpoints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology.
“Since the brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to this resilience.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Researchers have long reported that people with more years of formal education are at lower risk for Alzheimer's and other dementias than those with fewer years of formal education.80,[144][145][146][147][148][149]”
From 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2023) · cites this paper as [146]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This concept was theoretically framed by Park and Bischof (2013) as “scaffolding,” similar to the closely related cognitive reserve theory proposed by Stern (2012).”
In the citing paper
“supporting the theory that a greater cognitive reserve could help protect against development of LOAD117.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“The level of education, a surrogate marker of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2012), is an important determinant of the expression of VCI, such that for a given level of neuropathology higher education is associated with less cognitive deficits (Zieren et al., 2013).”
From The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia (2013) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“These findings lead to the suggestion that higher social engagement and support experienced both before and during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic might have had a protective/mitigating role by contributing to cognitive (51) and affective reserve (52).”
From The impact of COVID-19 infection and enforced prolonged social isolation on neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with and without dementia: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that individuals differ in their level of resilience against brain pathology and hence may exhibit differences in cognitive function despite equivalent levels of pathology (Stern, 2002(Stern, , 2012)).”
From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“The theory suggests that individuals differ in their degree of resilience against age-related brain pathology and hence may show differences in cognitive function in relation to an equivalent level of pathology [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve is a theoretical concept that may account for the role of social isolation and its association with cognitive outcomes in later life.”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Such individuals are likely to receive less cognitive stimulation through social contact, resulting in lower cognitive reserve and hence poorer cognitive function [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
Citations
Cites
What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept
STERN, Y. (2002) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617702813248 · Cited by 3,951
Self-citationRunning increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/6368 · Cited by 3,880
Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943
Self-citationRunning enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice
van Praag, H., Christie, B. R., Sejnowski, T. J., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.23.13427 · Cited by 2,904
Neural consequences of enviromental enrichment
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (2000) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/35044558 · Cited by 2,468
A Meta-Analysis of Cognitive Remediation for Schizophrenia: Methodology and Effect Sizes
Wykes, T., Huddy, V., Cellard, C., McGurk, S. R., & Czobor, P. (2011) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10060855 · Cited by 1,693
Training and plasticity of working memory
Klingberg, T. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 · Cited by 1,585
Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease
Stern, Y. (1994) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03510370056032 · Cited by 1,434
Self-citationAgeing, fitness and neurocognitive function
Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., Cohen, N. J., Banich, M. T., McAuley, E., Harrison, C. R., Chason, J., Vakil, E., Bardell, L., Boileau, R. A., et al. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/22682 · Cited by 1,394
Katzman, R., Terry, R., DeTeresa, R., Brown, T., Davies, P., Fuld, P., Renbing, X., & Peck, A. (1988) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410230206 · Cited by 1,225
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Gurland, 1981, The borderlands of dementia: the influence of sociocultural characteristics on rates of dementia occurring in the senium, Aging, 15, 61
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 3,537
Functional recovery after moderate/severe traumatic brain injury
Schneider, E. B., Sur, S., Raymont, V., Duckworth, J. L., Kowalski, R. G., Efron, D. T., Hui, X., Selvarajah, S., Hambridge, H. L., & Stevens, R. D. (2014) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000000379 · Cited by 130
“Sumowski et al.(3) have shown that educational attainment also attenuates the level of cognitive impairment in TBI.”
BackgroundInfluentialGrova, N., Schroeder, H., Olivier, J. L., & Turner, J. D. (2019) · International Journal of Genomics · doi:10.1155/2019/2085496 · Cited by 138
“, anatomical and functional organisation, respectively, are susceptible to changes in the early-life environment, leading to potential neurological disorders [10].”
BackgroundCaspers, S., Moebus, S., Lux, S., Pundt, N., Schütz, H., Mühleisen, T. W., Gras, V., Eickhoff, S. B., Romanzetti, S., Stöcker, T., et al. (2014) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2014.00149 · Cited by 131
“The process of aging varies widely between individuals, particularly in relation to cognitive abilities, motor skills, and changes in brain structure and function (for review e.g., Stern, 2009, 2012; Bartrés-Faz and Arenaza-Urquijo, 2011).”
BackgroundResultFancourt, D. E., & Steptoe, A. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-28591-8 · Cited by 144
Sex and age interact to determine clinicopathologic differences in Alzheimer’s disease
Liesinger, A. M., Graff-Radford, N. R., Duara, R., Carter, R. E., Hanna Al-Shaikh, F. S., Koga, S., Hinkle, K. M., DiLello, S. K., Johnson, M. F., Aziz, A., et al. (2018) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-018-1908-x · Cited by 126
Aging without Dementia is Achievable: Current Evidence from Epidemiological Research
Qiu, C., & Fratiglioni, L. (2018) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-171037 · Cited by 140
“Cognitive reserve has been proposed as explaining (1) the link of higher education and more frequent participation in social and intellectual activities with resistance to cognitive decline, and (2) the discrepancy between the extent of Alzheimer pathology and the severity of cognitive symptoms [27].”
BackgroundTooth Loss and Dementia: A Critical Examination
Thomson, W. M., & Barak, Y. (2021) · Journal of Dental Research · doi:10.1177/0022034520957233 · Cited by 132
“Mentioned briefly above, the notion of cognitive reserve (Stern 2012) is a crucial notion here.”
BackgroundGross, A. L., Mungas, D., Crane, P. K., Gibbons, L. E., MacKay‐Brandt, A., Manly, J. J., Mukherjee, S., Romero, H., Sachs, B. C., Thomas, M., et al. (2015) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000032 · Cited by 130
“There could be bias in how we measured functioning, or participants may have some cognitive or brain reserve that makes their “true” level of functioning different from their performance (e.g., Stern, 2012).”
Lifelong Exposure to Multilingualism: New Evidence to Support Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis
Perquin, M., Vaillant, M., Schuller, A.-M., Pastore, J., Dartigues, J., Lair, M., Diederich, N. J., & on behalf of the MemoVie Group (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062030 · Cited by 125
“Since cognitive reserve is also recognised as a factor influencing the rate of cognitive decline after diagnosis of AD (increasing the decline in case of high reserve) [24], the extent to which multilingualism can impact cognitive decline could be assessed through follow-up of the MemoVie cohort.”
BackgroundResultSchmidt, M. E., Chiao, P., Klein, G., Matthews, D. C., Thurfjell, L., Cole, P. E., Margolin, R. A., Landau, S. M., Foster, N. L., Mason, N. S., et al. (2014) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2014.09.004 · Cited by 125
“Lifetime education and occupational achievement can modulate the onset of cognitive decline and AD dementia [38].”
BackgroundDoes bilingualism contribute to cognitive reserve? Cognitive and neural perspectives.
Guzmán‐Vélez, E., & Tranel, D. (2014) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000105 · Cited by 135
“…neural mechanisms that are consistent with a neuroplasticity hypothesis have been proposed to mediate the relationship between cognitive reserve and clinical performance: neural reserve, neural compensation and a common network (Steffener, Reuben, Rakitin, & Stern, 2011; Steffener & Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundChildhood Lead Exposure and Adult Neurodegenerative Disease
Reuben, A. (2018) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-180267 · Cited by 134
“Although dynamic measures of brain structure are now receiving research attention (particularly biomarkers of adult neurogenesis) the static measures of whole brain volume and head circumference (a measure of premorbid brain size) represent the best-studied measures of brain reserve to date [112].”
InfluentialByun, M. S., Yi, D., Lee, J. H., Choe, Y. M., Sohn, B. K., Lee, J., Choi, H. J., Baek, H., Kim, Y. K., Lee, Y., et al. (2017) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.4306/pi.2017.14.6.851 · Cited by 120
Sex specific cognitive differences in Parkinson disease
Reekes, T. H., Higginson, C. I., Ledbetter, C. R., Sathivadivel, N., Zweig, R. M., & Disbrow, E. A. (2020) · npj Parkinson s Disease · doi:10.1038/s41531-020-0109-1 · Cited by 125
Calderón‐Garcidueñas, L., Franco-Lira, M., Mora-Tiscareño, A., Medina‐Cortina, H., Torres‐Jardón, R., & Kavanaugh, M. (2013) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2013/161687 · Cited by 131
Panza, F., Lozupone, M., Sardone, R., Battista, P., Piccininni, M., Dibello, V., Montagna, M. L., Stallone, R., Venezia, P., Liguori, A., et al. (2018) · Therapeutic Advances in Chronic Disease · doi:10.1177/2040622318811000 · Cited by 128
Consensus Paper: Cerebellum and Ageing
Arleo, A., Bareš, M., Bernard, J. A., Bogoian, H. R., Bruchhage, M. M. K., Bryant, P., Carlson, E. S., Chan, C. C. H., Chen, L., Chung, C., et al. (2023) · The Cerebellum · doi:10.1007/s12311-023-01577-7 · Cited by 129
“The concept of reserve has been proposed first in other degenerative diseases, such as cognitive reserve in AD [191, 192] and motor reserve in Parkinson’s disease [193].”
The Impact of Cognitive Reserve on Brain Functional Connectivity in Alzheimer's Disease
Bozzali, M., Dowling, C., Serra, L., Spanò, B., Torso, M., Marra, C., Castelli, D., Dowell, N. G., Koch, G., Caltagirone, C., et al. (2015) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-141824 · Cited by 119
“…provide independent and complementary contributions to understanding the origin of individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology [2 . clinical conditions, such as the neurodegenerative dementias, which result in a progressive accumulation known whether and how brain and…”
Malpetti, M., Ballarini, T., Presotto, L., Garibotto, V., Tettamanti, M., Perani, D., Initiative, A. D. N., & Network for Efficiency and Standardization of Dementia Diagnosis (NEST‐DD) database (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23659 · Cited by 128
“The concept of both CR and BR has greatly developed both at the theoretical and experimental levels thanks also to in vivo neuroimaging methods that provided insights into the anatomo-functional correlates both in healthy aging and in diseases [Stern, 2012; Tucker and Stern, 2011].”
BackgroundDevelopment of reserves over the life course and onset of vulnerability in later life
Cullati, S., Kliegel, M., & Widmer, E. D. (2018) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0395-3 · Cited by 118
What Happens When Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Become Adults?
Moore, E. M., & Riley, E. P. (2015) · Current Developmental Disorders Reports · doi:10.1007/s40474-015-0053-7 · Cited by 120
Lesuis, S. L., Hoeijmakers, L., Kőrösi, A., de Rooij, S. R., Swaab, D. F., Kessels, H. W. H. G., Lucassen, P. J., & Krugers, H. J. (2018) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-018-0422-7 · Cited by 128
Is dementia incidence declining in high-income countries? A systematic review and meta-analysis
Roehr, S., Pabst, A., Luck, T., & Riedel-Heller, S. (2018) · Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.2147/clep.s163649 · Cited by 115
“For example, higher education or physical activity could build cognitive reserve against cognitive and functional decline in old age, 41 ultimately leading to a compression of morbidity from dementia.”
Focused Update of Sex Differences in Patient Reported Outcome Measures After Stroke
Gall, S., Phan, H., Madsen, T. E., Reeves, M. J., Rist, P. M., Jiménez, M. C., Lichtman, J. H., Dong, L., & Lisabeth, L. D. (2018) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/strokeaha.117.018417 · Cited by 123
Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in older people with depression and anxiety
Evans, I. E. M., Llewellyn, D. J., Matthews, F. E., Woods, R. T., Brayne, C., & Clare, L. (2019) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1506742 · Cited by 115
“Cognitive reserve theory can account for differences in late-life cognitive trajectories and suggests that individuals differ in their resilience against damage caused by agerelated brain pathology (Stern, 2002, 2012).”
BackgroundChen, Y., Lv, C., Li, X., Zhang, J., Chen, K., Liu, Z., He, L., Fan, J., Qin, T., Luo, L., et al. (2019) · Aging · doi:10.18632/aging.102088 · Cited by 132
“com 4927 AGING The concept of CR suggests that more education may help delay cognitive declines in the healthy elderly, and may also enable individuals with AD to be more resilient to brain damage by allowing them to use cognitive processing or compensatory approaches [30, 31].”
BackgroundLate-life depression and increased risk of dementia: a longitudinal cohort study
Ly, M. J., Karim, H. T., Becker, J. T., López, O. L., Anderson, S., Aizenstein, H. J., Reynolds, C. F., Zmuda, M. D., & Butters, M. A. (2021) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-021-01269-y · Cited by 131
Gelfo, F., Mandolesi, L., Serra, L., Sorrentino, G., & Caltagirone, C. (2017) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.07.065 · Cited by 124
Franzmeier, N., Düzel, E., Jessen, F., Büerger, K., Levin, J., Duering, M., Dichgans, M., Haass, C., Suárez‐Calvet, M., Fagan, A. M., et al. (2018) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awy008 · Cited by 117
“The theory of reserve posits that such a discrepancy between brain path- ology and cognitive impairment is not a prediction error due to incomplete detection of neuronal pathologies, but is due to higher resilience against the effects of pathology (Park and Reuter-Lorenz, 2009; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundResultEducation differentially contributes to cognitive reserve across racial/ethnic groups
Avila, J. F., Rentería, M. A., Jones, R. N., Vonk, J. M. J., Turney, I. C., Sol, K., Šeblová, D., Arias, F., Hill‐Jarrett, T. G., Levy, S.-A. T., et al. (2020) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12176 · Cited by 115
Veitch, D. P., Weiner, M. W., Miller, M., Aisen, P. S., Ashford, M. A., Beckett, L. A., Green, R. C., Harvey, D., Jack, C. R., Jagust, W., et al. (2024) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13449 · Cited by 113
Heart Failure and Risk of Dementia: A Danish Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study
Adelborg, K., Horváth–Puhó, E., Ording, A. G., Pedersen, L. H., Sørensen, H. T., & Henderson, V. W. (2016) · European Journal of Heart Failure · doi:10.1002/ejhf.631 · Cited by 116
“8) Charlson Comorbidity Indexa Normal 235 534 (73) 1 350 105 (83) Moderate 45 406 (14) 118 649 (7) Severe 31 105 (10) 123 189 (8) Very severe 12 373 (4) 30 136 (2)”
The puzzle of sex, gender and Alzheimer’s disease: Why are women more often affected than men?
Andrew, M. K., & Tierney, M. C. (2018) · Women's Health · doi:10.1177/1745506518817995 · Cited by 75
Xu, H., Yang, R., Qi, X., Dintica, C. S., Song, R., Bennett, D. A., & Xu, W. (2019) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2019.2455 · Cited by 120
“19 For social activity in late life, frequency of activity was assessed using a 6-item scale, including (1) going to restaurants, sporting events, or teletract (off-track betting); (2) going on day or overnight trips; (3) doing unpaid community or volunteer work; (4) visiting relatives’ or friends’ houses; (5) partici…”
BackgroundMethodResultBoublay, N., Schott, A., & Krolak‐Salmon, P. (2016) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.13076 · Cited by 119
“Depression should be considered (i) as a risk factor for clinical AD as it is linked to cognitive reserve impairment and thus a shortening of the asymptomatic phase of the disease [24] and (ii) as a comorbid with dementia favored by neural lesions and psychological reaction to disability [25].”
BackgroundEnvironmental Factors Promoting Neural Plasticity: Insights from Animal and Human Studies
Mandolesi, L., Gelfo, F., Serra, L., Montuori, S., Polverino, A., Curcio, G., & Sorrentino, G. (2017) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2017/7219461 · Cited by 120
“It also explains differential susceptibility to functional impairment in the presence of pathology or neurological insult [4].”
BackgroundFranzmeier, N., Göttler, J., Grimmer, T., Drzezga, A. E., Caballero, M. Á. A., Simon‐Vermot, L., Taylor, A. N. W., Bürger, K., Catak, C., Janowitz, D., et al. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00264 · Cited by 117
“…proposes that individuals with favorable cognitive and lifestyle factors such as education, IQ and occupational complexity can transiently maintain relatively high cognitive performance when developing Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia in elderly people (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRomán-Caballero, R., Arnedo, M., Triviño, M., & Lupiáñez, J. (2018) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207957 · Cited by 113
Tau and mTOR: The Hotspots for Multifarious Diseases in Alzheimer's Development
Mueed, Z., Tandon, P., Maurya, S. K., Deval, R., Kamal, M. A., & Poddar, N. K. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.01017 · Cited by 111
“Reports have suggested that almost 2.7% of India’s population is wretched by this disease (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialBelloy, M. E., Napolioni, V., Han, S. S., Le Guen, Y., Greicius, M. D., & Initiative, F. T. A. D. N. (2020) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.0414 · Cited by 110
Early Life Epidemiology of Alzheimer's Disease - A Critical Review
Seifan, A., Schelke, M. W., Obeng-Aduasare, Y., & Isaacson, R. (2015) · Neuroepidemiology · doi:10.1159/000439568 · Cited by 116
Financial Presentation of Alzheimer Disease and Related Dementias
Nicholas, L. H., Langa, K. M., Bynum, J., & Hsu, J. W. (2020) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.6432 · Cited by 115
Slowing the progression of Alzheimer’s disease; what works?
Nelson, L., & Tabet, N. (2015) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2015.07.002 · Cited by 117
“While cognitive reserve may have a protective effect against early presentation of symptoms, this may be lost once conditions advance, as higher levels of cognitive reserve mask the consequences of early pathology (Stern, 2012).”
White, C. C., Yang, H., Yu, L., Chibnik, L. B., Dawe, R. J., Yang, J., Klein, H., Felsky, D., Ramos‐Miguel, A., Arfanakis, K., et al. (2017) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002287 · Cited by 105
“To account for this dissociation, multiple mechanisms have been suggested: brain reserve capacity [2,8,9], cognitive reserve [2,10], differential neuroglial reactions to pathology [11], and other undetected pathophysiological processes [11–13].”
BackgroundHughes, T. F., Flatt, J. D., Fu, B., Butters, M. A., Chang, C. H., & Ganguli, M. (2014) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.4075 · Cited by 105
“, vascular and neurodegeneration) brain changes so that cognitive abilities are preserved (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundHigher Risk of Vascular Dementia in Myocardial Infarction Survivors
Sundbøll, J., Horváth–Puhó, E., Adelborg, K., Schmidt, M., Pedersen, L. H., Bøtker, H. E., Henderson, V. W., & Sørensen, H. T. (2017) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/circulationaha.117.029127 · Cited by 112
Almeida, R. P., Schultz, S. A., Austin, B. P., Boots, E. A., Dowling, N. M., Gleason, C. E., Bendlin, B. B., Sager, M. A., Hermann, B. P., Zetterberg, H., et al. (2015) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2015.0098 · Cited by 107
Survival after dementia diagnosis in five racial/ethnic groups
Mayeda, E. R., Glymour, M. M., Quesenberry, C. P., Johnson, J. K., Pérez‐Stable, E. J., & Whitmer, R. A. (2017) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2016.12.008 · Cited by 112
“We were also unable to account for social determinants such as quantity or quality of education, which is associated with progression to dementia [3,29], or important behaviors such as physical activity [43,44].”
BackgroundResultTosun, D., Landau, S. M., Aisen, P. S. S., Petersen, R. C., Mintun, M. A., Jagust, W., Weiner, M. W., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2017) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awx046 · Cited by 110
“…especially in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease (Corder et al., 2004; Damoiseaux et al., 2012); greater education may allow people to harbour amyloid-b plaques and other brain pathology linked to Alzheimer’s disease without experiencing decline in their cognitive functioning (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialZhang, Y.-R., Xu, W. M., Zhang, W., Wang, H.-F., Ou, Y., Qu, Y., Shen, X., Chen, S.-D., Wu, K., Zhao, Q., et al. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.07.008 · Cited by 110
Lehert, P., Villaseca, P., Hogervorst, E., Maki, P. M., & Henderson, V. W. (2015) · Climacteric · doi:10.3109/13697137.2015.1078106 · Cited by 106
Huang, A., Roth, D. L., Cidav, T., Chung, S.-E., Amjad, H., Thorpe, R. J., Boyd, C. M., & Cudjoe, T. (2023) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.18140 · Cited by 106
“Second, lack of social engagement can lead to reduced cognitive activity and lower cognitive reserve.(35,36) The cognitive reserve hypothesis suggests individuals with lower levels of cognitive functioning and reserve are more susceptible to the pathology associated with dementia.”
BackgroundCognitive Reserve in Healthy Aging and Alzheimer’s Disease
Colangeli, S., Boccia, M., Verde, P., Guariglia, P., Bianchini, F., & Piccardi, L. (2016) · American Journal of Alzheimers Disease & Other Dementias · doi:10.1177/1533317516653826 · Cited by 102
Wassenaar, T. M., Yaffe, K. S., van der Werf, Y. D., & Sexton, C. E. (2019) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.04.006 · Cited by 108
“…have examined the association between such factors and WM structure are backed by theories of brain reserve (Bartrés-Faz and ArenazaUrquijo, 2011; Stern, 2012), which suggest that higher levels of, for example, WM (such as volume or microstructure) correspond to a better tolerance of age- and…”
BackgroundMulti-domain interventions for the prevention of dementia and cognitive decline
Hafdi, M., Hoevenaar-Blom, M. P., & Richard, E. (2021) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd013572.pub2 · Cited by 124
Effect of retirement on cognitive function: the Whitehall II cohort study
Xue, B., Cadar, D., Fleischmann, M., Stansfeld, S., Carr, E., Kivimäki, M., McMunn, A., & Head, J. (2018) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-017-0347-7 · Cited by 102
“It has been postulated that innate cognitive resources (such as childhood IQ), cognitive stimulation during brain maturation in childhood (such as education), and cognitively engaged lifestyle during adulthood (such as cognitively demanding occupation) can increase cognitive reserve, thus building up a buffer against…”
BackgroundPlaying board games, cognitive decline and dementia: a French population-based cohort study
Dartigues, J., Foubert‐Samier, A., Goff, M. L., Viltard, M., Amieva, H., Orgogozo, J. M., Barberger‐Gateau, P., & Helmer, C. (2013) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002998 · Cited by 105
Mullane, K., & Williams, M. J. (2020) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2020.113945 · Cited by 109
Perneczky, R., Kempermann, G., Korczyn, A. D., Matthews, F. E., Ikram, M. A., Scarmeas, N., Chételat, G., Stern, Y., & Ewers, M. (2019) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-019-1283-z · Cited by 114
Self-citationFurther understanding the connection between Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome
Snyder, H. M., Bain, L. J., Brickman, A. M., Carrillo, M. C., Esbensen, A. J., Espinosa, J. M., Fernandez, F., Fortea, J., Hartley, S. L., Head, E., et al. (2020) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12112 · Cited by 105
“…the recruitment of alternative neural networks and/or foster more efficient use of existing networks to cope with early AD pathophysiologic insult (Stern, 2012).67 In aging non-DS populations, cognitively stimulating lifestyles have been found to be associated with reduced A𝛽 accumulation68 and…”
BackgroundFranzmeier, N., Caballero, M. Á. A., Taylor, A. N. W., Simon-Vermot, L., Buerger, K., Ertl-Wagner, B., Mueller, C., Catak, C., Janowitz, D., Baykara, E., et al. (2016) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-016-9599-1 · Cited by 103
“the gold standard, since educational attainment has been recommended as the best validated indicator of cognitive reserve (Stern 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDefault mode network as a potential biomarker of chemotherapy-related brain injury
Kesler, S. R. (2014) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.03.036 · Cited by 101
Puthiyedth, N., Riveros, C., Berretta, R. E., & Moscato, P. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152342 · Cited by 105
“Studies also show the relationship between lifelong involvement in mentally and socially stimulating activities and reduced risk of AD [5, 6].”
BackgroundVenkataraman, A. V., Mansur, A., Rizzo, G., Bishop, C., Lewis, Y., Kocagoncu, E., Lingford-Hughes, A., Huiban, M., Passchier, J., Rowe, J. B., et al. (2022) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.abk1051 · Cited by 101
“The healthy brain thus has considerable functional reserve arising from a redundancy or plasticity that allows normal cognition to be maintained despite some impairments of functions (those affecting metabolism and synaptic and neuronal circuit activity) (20).”
BackgroundCognitive reserve in multiple sclerosis: Protective effects of education
SILVA, A. C. F. D., Cavaco, S., Moreira, I. C., Bettencourt, A., Santos, E., Pinto, C. A., Gonçalves, A., Coutinho, E., Samões, R., Dias, C. C., et al. (2015) · Multiple Sclerosis Journal · doi:10.1177/1352458515581874 · Cited by 102
Varatharajah, Y., Ramanan, V. K., Iyer, R. K., Vemuri, P., Initiative, A. D. N., Weiner, M. W., Aisen, P., Petersen, R. C., Jack, C. R., Saykin, A. J., et al. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-38793-3 · Cited by 108
Bubbico, G., Chiacchiaretta, P., Parenti, M., di Marco, M., Panara, V., Sepede, G., Ferretti, A., & Perrucci, M. G. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00423 · Cited by 119
“The concept of brain and cognitive reserve, that is the brain resilience capacity (Stern, 2012), become a resource that could be one shock-absorber for pathological aging and can be increased even later in life.”
BackgroundDietary Patterns and Alzheimer’s Disease: An Updated Review Linking Nutrition to Neuroscience
Ellouze, I., Sheffler, J., Nagpal, R., & Arjmandi, B. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15143204 · Cited by 104
“One possible mechanism is that specific dietary constituents may influence neural resources and enhance cognitive health and resilience [22,23].”
BackgroundRisk of Dementia in Adults With Congenital Heart Disease
Bagge, C. N., Henderson, V. W., Laursen, H., Adelborg, K., Olsen, M., & Madsen, N. L. (2018) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/circulationaha.117.029686 · Cited by 99
Huang, K.-T. (2020) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2019.0269 · Cited by 98
“The results of this study support the concept of cognitive reserve 12 and spatial presence theories and found that the immersive experience of exergaming has the potential to improve specific cognitive domains in older adults.”
Neuro-degeneration profile of Alzheimer's patients: A brain morphometry study
Filho, S. R. B. D. S., Barbosa, J. H. O., Rondinoni, C., dos Santos, A. C., Salmón, C. E. G., Lima, N. K. D. C., Ferriolli, E., & Moriguti, J. C. (2017) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2017.04.001 · Cited by 102
“From this point of view, an alternative for years of formal education would be literacy, which would also provide some kind of cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundWang, X., Mao, Z., Ling, Z., & Yu, X. (2019) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-019-09644-y · Cited by 99
Altered cerebrovascular reactivity velocity in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease
Richiardi, J., Monsch, A. U., Haas, T., Barkhof, F., Ville, D. V. D., Radue, E. W., Kressig, R. W., & Haller, S. (2014) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.07.020 · Cited by 96
“This interaction is made more complex by interindividual variation in cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012), which modulates the relationship between cognitive function and structural damage (magnetic resonance imaging, MRI) or impaired metabolism (positron emission tomography) (Fotenos et al.”
Pusic, K. M., Pusic, A. D., & Kraig, R. P. (2016) · Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s10571-015-0269-4 · Cited by 99
“enrichment in creating ‘cognitive reserve’ and lessening the impact of brain disease on cognitive impairment (Stern 2012; Crescentini et al. 2014).”
BackgroundCognitive Reserve in Dementia: Implications for Cognitive Training
Mondini, S., Madella, I., Zangrossi, A., Bigolin, A., Tomasi, C., Michieletto, M., Villani, D., Giovanni, G. D., & Mapelli, D. (2016) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2016.00084 · Cited by 98
Association of Apolipoprotein E ε4 With Transactive Response DNA-Binding Protein 43
Wennberg, A. M. V., Tosakulwong, N., Lesnick, T. G., Murray, M. E., Whitwell, J. L., Liesinger, A. M., Petrucelli, L., Boeve, B. F., Parisi, J. E., Knopman, D. S., et al. (2018) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.3139 · Cited by 96
Saraulli, D., Costanzi, M., Mastrorilli, V., & Vecchioli, S. F. (2017) · Current Neuropharmacology · doi:10.2174/1570159x14666160412150223 · Cited by 104
“Thus, the cognitive reserve is a functional concept suggesting that brain can compensate pathological decline by using pre-existing cognitive processes [206, 208, 209].”
Silva, A. R., Sgnaolin, V., Nogueira, E. L., Loureiro, F., Engroff, P., & Gomes, I. (2017) · Jornal Brasileiro de Psiquiatria · doi:10.1590/0047-2085000000149 · Cited by 107
Mild cognitive impairment in type 2 diabetes mellitus and related risk factors: a review
Yuan, X.-Y., & Wang, X. (2017) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro-2017-0016 · Cited by 100
Fancourt, D., Steptoe, A., & Cadar, D. (2018) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2018.129 · Cited by 96
Bilingualism and Cognitive Reserve: A Critical Overview and a Plea for Methodological Innovations
Calvo, N., García, A. M., Manoiloff, L. M. V., & Ibáñez, A. M. (2016) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2015.00249 · Cited by 111
“The latter findings have been taken as evidence for the phenomenon of cognitive reserve (CR), the brain’s capacity for functional compensation or resilience following damage or throughout healthy aging (Stern, 2012; Cabeza and Dennis, 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialKrell‐Roesch, J., Vemuri, P., Pink, A., Roberts, R. O., Stokin, G. B., Mielke, M. M., Christianson, T. J. H., Knopman, D. S., Petersen, R. C., Kremers, W. K., et al. (2017) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.3822 · Cited by 96
“Also, the cognitive reserve theory states that engagement in mentally stimulating activities or a high educational level may buffer the negative effects of abnormal brain pathological changes on cognitive function.(45) The reader is referred to our group’s previous article(12) for a discussion of potential mechanisms…”
Uncovering the Mechanisms Responsible for Why Language Learning May Promote Healthy Cognitive Aging
Antoniou, M., & Wright, S. M. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02217 · Cited by 100
“Stern (2012) proposes two possible mechanisms for cognitive reserve: neural reserve, according to which differences in the resilience of already established networks, and neural compensation, according to which some individuals are better able to compensate for brain decline by using alternative…”
BackgroundConscientiousness Is Associated with Lower Risk of Dementia among Black and White Older Adults
Kaup, A. R., Harmell, A. L., & Yaffe, K. S. (2019) · Neuroepidemiology · doi:10.1159/000492821 · Cited by 90
Measuring Resilience and Resistance in Aging and Alzheimer Disease Using Residual Methods
Bocancea, D., van Loenhoud, A. C., Groot, C., Barkhof, F., van der Flier, W. M., & Ossenkoppele, R. (2021) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000012499 · Cited by 86
“Resistance and resilience in the aging brain exist by virtue of both genetics and environmental exposures across the lifespan; for example, education, intellectually engaging leisure activities, or physical exercise.(5,6) There is no consensus on how to optimally define and measure these constructs.”
BackgroundMIND Diet, Common Brain Pathologies, and Cognition in Community-Dwelling Older Adults
Dhana, K., James, B. D., Agarwal, P., Aggarwal, N. T., Cherian, L. J., Leurgans, S. E., Barnes, L. L., Bennett, D. A., & Schneider, J. A. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-210107 · Cited by 98
“However, not all individuals with pathologies in the brain experience cognitive dysfunction – some have the ability to maintain function despite damage from the accumulation of brain pathologies [7,8].”
Cerebral small vessel disease, cognitive reserve and cognitive dysfunction
Pinter, D., Enzinger, C., & Fazekas, F. (2015) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-015-7776-6 · Cited by 95
“While ‘‘brain reserve’’ may be seen as a personal trait, ‘‘cognitive reserve’’ is malleable and therefore represents an active form of reserve (for more detailed information see [24]).”
BackgroundInfluentialRöhr, S., Pabst, A., Baber, R., Engel, C., Glaesmer, H., Hinz, A., Schroeter, M. L., Witte, A. V., Zeynalova, S., Villringer, A., et al. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-16771-6 · Cited by 92
Exercise Improves Vascular Function, but does this Translate to the Brain?
Barnes, J. N., & Corkery, A. T. (2018) · Brain Plasticity · doi:10.3233/bpl-180075 · Cited by 105
“This hypothesis is based on the idea that: 1) greater levels of CBF may prevent or slow the accumulation of neuropathology, in particular amyloid- [36, 37]; and 2) greater levels of CBF may allow for higher cognitive reserve for a given level of neuropathological burden [38, 39].”
BackgroundHearing Impairment and Cognitive Decline in Older, Community-Dwelling Adults
Alattar, A. A., Bergstrom, J., Laughlin, G. A., Kritz‐Silverstein, D. C., Richard, E., Reas, E. T., Harris, J. P., Barrett-Connor, E. L., & McEvoy, L. K. (2019) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glz035 · Cited by 91
“We found a significant interaction between education level, a proxy for cognitive reserve (33), and mild hearing impairment on MMSE decline, and a trend-level effect on Trails B decline.”
BackgroundAlzheimer's Disease and Dementia
Sabat, S. R. (2018) · doi:10.1093/wentk/9780190603106.001.0001 · Cited by 89
The smarter, the stronger: Intelligence level correlates with brain resilience to systematic insults
Santarnecchi, E., Rossi, S., & Rossi, A. (2014) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2014.11.005 · Cited by 94
“The idea that "some people appears to be more resilient to brain cha ges than others" (Stern 2012) has opened a new research field in contemporary neuroscience, aimed at understanding both the underlying mechanisms and candidate biomarkers for this buffer, with evidences also pointing at specific…”
BackgroundGates, N. J., Rutjes, A. W., Nisio, M. D., Karim, S., Chong, L., March, E. G., Martínez, G., & Vernooij, R. W. M. (2020) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd012277.pub3 · Cited by 100
Akinyemi, R., Allan, L. M., Owolabi, M. O., Akinyemi, J. O., Ogbole, G. I., Ajani, A. A., Firbank, M., Ogunniyi, A. O., & Kalaria, R. N. (2014) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2014.08.042 · Cited by 94
“Educational attainment has been found to protect against cognitive impairment in numerous disorders includingMCI, Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia [3,59].”
Boros, B. D., Greathouse, K. M., Gearing, M., & Herskowitz, J. H. (2019) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.09.003 · Cited by 90
“This interpretation can be considered alongside neuroimaging research that explored the epidemiological phenomena of cognitive reserve and neural compensation in older individuals with brain pathology (Oh et al., 2018; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundNeural substrates of cognitive reserve in Alzheimer's disease spectrum and normal aging
Lee, D. H., Lee, P., Seo, S. W., Roh, J. H., Oh, M., Oh, J. S., Oh, S. J., Kim, J. S., & Jeong, Y. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.11.053 · Cited by 99
“In previous study, grey matter density of precentral gyrus was associated with increased secondary network utilization for reserve against age-related change (Steffener and Stern, 2012).”
Social Engagement and Amyloid-β-Related Cognitive Decline in Cognitively Normal Older Adults
Biddle, K. D., Uquillas, F. D., Jacobs, H. I. L., Zide, B. S., Kirn, D. R., Rentz, D. M., Johnson, K. A., Sperling, R. A., & Donovan, N. J. (2019) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2019.05.005 · Cited by 95
Parker, S. K., Ward, M. K., & Fisher, G. G. (2021) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2019.0057 · Cited by 106
Fine Particulate Matter and Dementia Incidence in the Adult Changes in Thought Study
Shaffer, R. M., Blanco, M. N., Ge, L., Adar, S. D., Carone, M., Szpiro, A. A., Kaufman, J. D., Larson, T. V., Larson, E. B., Crane, P. K., et al. (2021) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp9018 · Cited by 89
“Education was evaluated given hypotheses regarding cognitive reserve and dementia risk (Meng and D’Arcy 2012; Stern 2012).”
MethodPredicting Symptom Onset in Sporadic Alzheimer Disease With Amyloid PET
Schindler, S. E., Li, Y., Buckles, V. D., Gordon, B. A., Benzinger, T. L. S., Wang, G., Coble, D., Klunk, W. E., Fagan, A. M., Holtzman, D. M., et al. (2021) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000012775 · Cited by 89
“The increased expression of AD symptoms in older individuals could be related to decreased cognitive reserve from normal aging processes or comorbid conditions.(39,40) Brain amyloid deposition is necessary but not sufficient for symptomatic AD, and many other genetic, biological, and social factors are likely involved…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Stern, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stern, Yaakov
- ORCID
- Stern, Yaakov
- Venue
- The Lancet Neurology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1006-1012
- ISSN
- 1474-4422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3507991
- OpenAlex
- W2144907160
- Cited by
- 3,557
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 412 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 311 · 2023: 343 · 2022: 281 · 2021: 303 · 2020: 350 · 2019: 292 · 2018: 244 · 2017: 213 · 2016: 176 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 93 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- The Lancet Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026158, R01AG014671)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, brain reserve, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive aging, dementia risk, educational attainment, occupational attainment, leisure
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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