The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 54 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Open accessAbstract
The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that cognitive reserve explains why people differ in how much Alzheimer’s disease pathology or age-related brain change they can tolerate while still functioning. It synthesizes epidemiologic, neuroimaging, postmortem, and intervention evidence, and concludes that reserve is modifiable but that causal interventions remain unproven.
Key findings
- Reserve is split into brain reserve, a more passive quantitative tolerance tied to brain size or neurons/synapses, and cognitive reserve, an active functional process in which pre-existing or compensatory networks help cope with damage.
- Epidemiologic studies cited found that fewer than 8 years of education carried 2.2 times higher dementia risk, low occupational attainment carried 2.25 times higher risk, and greater leisure activity was linked to 38% lower risk; a review of 22 cohort studies estimated higher reserve reduced dementia risk by 46%.
- After Alzheimer’s disease becomes clinically apparent, higher reserve is associated with faster decline: memory scores fell about one point yearly on average, with an additional point yearly in those with higher education or occupation.
- Imaging and autopsy evidence indicated that at matched clinical severity, higher education was linked to greater parietotemporal blood-flow deficit and, in 130 elders, each additional year of education reduced the pathology–cognition association by 0.088 standard units; fMRI work distinguished neural reserve from neural compensation.
Methods
- Narrative review by the author, integrating his group’s and others’ epidemiologic cohort studies, functional and resting neuroimaging studies, postmortem analyses, and cognitive or exercise intervention trials.
- Cited samples include 593 non-demented adults aged 60 or older followed for 4 years, 130 elders who had cognitive evaluation before autopsy, and a preliminary 90-person older-adult Space Fortress training study.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis rather than a new primary study or formal meta-analysis; it draws on a cited systematic review of 22 cohort studies for one pooled estimate.
Limitations
- Stated: epidemiologic evidence is correlational and cannot establish causation; controlled intervention studies are needed, and no study to date has shown changes in the key endpoints of slowed cognitive decline or reduced Alzheimer’s disease risk.
- Stated: clinical use of biomarkers and imaging for reserve is premature because prognostic implications are not fully established, and cognitive training evidence is mixed.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without formal risk-of-bias assessment, many findings come from the author’s own research program, and the interaction between brain reserve and cognitive reserve remains unresolved.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
39 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 No basis given · 10 Supported · 10 Own result · 8 Partly supported · 5 Supported so far · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This idea is supported by a set of studies that suggest that prevalence or incidence of dementia is lower in individuals with larger brains13, 14.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Katzman, 1988, Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques, Ann Neurol source
- Supportedcites [14] Schofield, 1997, An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging, Neurology source
The Discussion (p. 5) reports that smaller head circumference was associated with higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. The paper uses head circumference as an index of premorbid brain size (p. 1), so its finding supports the citing sentence’s hedged association. This study measured prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, not incidence of dementia generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, compared to individuals with lower CR, those with higher CR performed better even when they use the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [42] Steffener, 2011, Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve, Brain Imaging Behav source
The Results (Model C) report that, in older adults, higher cognitive reserve reduced the negative effect of network 2 expression on task performance. The Discussion likewise says older adults with greater reserve maintained performance better as network 2 expression increased. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those who engaged in more leisure activities had 38% less risk of developing dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [24] Scarmeas, 2001, Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Neurology source
The Discussion explicitly states that subjects with high leisure activity had 38% less risk of developing dementia. The Results report a relative risk of 0.62 (95% CI 0.46–0.83), consistent with that figure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The rate of decline is more rapid in individuals with high reserve than those with low reserve, even when accounting for a multitude of other factors that may contribute to disease course27, 28, 46.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [27] Stern, 1999, Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve?, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The DOI was not indexed for paper-scoped Semantic Scholar search, so the cited paper’s full text could not be checked directly. A systematic review, “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis” (search score 0.789), explicitly attributes more rapid memory decline in Alzheimer’s patients with higher education and occupational attainment to Stern et al. (1999). This supports the central claim, though the retrieved passage does not verify which other factors the original analysis accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
No paper-scoped Semantic Scholar snippets were available for Scarmeas et al. (2006). However, “Higher education affects accelerated cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease” explicitly cites Scarmeas et al. (2006) among studies finding more rapid cognitive decline after Alzheimer’s onset in patients with higher education (snippet score 0.534). This supports the claim through a secondary citation, although the available evidence does not independently verify which other factors Scarmeas et al. adjusted for. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Supportedcites [46] Hall, 2007, Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Hall’s (2007) title establishes the finding of delayed accelerated memory decline in people who develop dementia. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Episodic memory performance in a multi-ethnic longitudinal study of 13,037 elderly” describes the same pattern: education is associated with a delayed change point followed by faster decline (score 0.52). Hall’s full text was unavailable in the paper-scoped search, so the specific assertion about accounting for other factors could not be checked directly; the available evidence supports the core paraphrase, not every qualification. (LLM, conf=0.72)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In a young group of subjects we identified an activation network that was expressed during the stimulus presentation phase of both tasks and whose increase in expression with increasing load correlated with CR.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Stern, 2008, A common neural network for cognitive reserve in verbal and object working memory in young but not old, Cereb Cortex source
The Discussion identifies a pattern in young subjects during stimulus presentation whose load-related activation had a similar relationship with cognitive reserve in both the letter and shape tasks. The Canonical Variates Analysis reports significant expression of that pattern in both tasks and relates its load-related expression to cognitive-reserve scores. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Similar analysis demonstrated a comparable protective effect of occupational attainment33 and leisure activities34.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Stern, 1995, Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [34] Scarmeas, 2003, Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Arch Neurol source
The cited paper’s Results report an inverse association between activity scores and cerebral blood flow after controlling for clinical severity, which the authors interpret as consistent with cognitive reserve. The Conclusions describe analogous findings for occupational attainment and note evidence linking leisure activities to reduced dementia risk. The citation supports the leisure-activities part of the sentence; occupational attainment has a separate citation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, at a given level of clinical severity, AD patients with higher education have a more severe pattern of AD-related changes on PET scan than those with lower education44, 45.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Garibotto, 2008, Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [45] Kemppainen, 2008, Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Abstract reports that high- and low-educated patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease had the same degree of cognitive deterioration, while the high-educated group showed greater amyloid-tracer uptake and lower glucose metabolism on PET. The Discussion likewise describes more pronounced amyloid accumulation and neuronal dysfunction in the high-educated group. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In AD patients matched for clinical severity, we found an inverse relationship between resting rCBF and years of education32.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Stern, 1992, Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Procedures (p. 2) state that rCBF was measured under resting conditions. The Results (pp. 2–3) report greater parietotemporal flow reductions with more education in AD groups that did not differ on clinical measures; the relationship at the P3 detector remained significant after controlling for dementia severity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The neural implementation of CR might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation16, 38.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
In “Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR,” Stern explicitly says that the neural implementation of cognitive reserve might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation. The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section also describes them as two proposed components. (LLM, conf=0.95)
- Supportedcites [38] Stern, 2005, Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults, Cereb Cortex source
The Introduction (p. 1) explicitly proposes two complementary facets of the neural implementation of cognitive reserve: neural reserve and neural compensation. The paper then defines and contrasts them in the Introduction (pp. 1–2). (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These observations using cerebral blood flow have been replicated by other groups as well35, 36.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Alexander, 1997, Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Am J Psychiatry source
- Supportedcites [36] Perneczky, 2006, Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry source
The Results report an inverse association between schooling and glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. The Discussion says these findings are supported by other groups’ cerebral-blood-flow studies, while noting that the results do not match exactly because of differences in samples and methods. This paper used FDG-PET rather than measuring cerebral blood flow itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, the concept of CR suggests that the brain actively attempts to cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches15, 16.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Stern, 2002, What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section states that active models such as CR propose that the brain copes with damage using pre-existing cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory processes. This directly supports the paraphrase; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We replicated this observation in patients with incident AD28 and also found more rapid decline in cognitive function in AD patients who engaged in more leisure activities prior to dementia onset29.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Supportedcites [29] Helzner, 2007, Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Using a covariance method to analyze the imaging data, we identified a spatial pattern of fMRI activation that was expressed by both groups and whose expression increased as the task became more difficult.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] Stern, 2012, Task difficulty modulates young-old differences in network expression, Brain Res source
The Functional imaging section identifies a spatial pattern common to young and old participants. The Discussion states that its expression increased logarithmically with task difficulty. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In a follow-up analysis41, we found that atrophy in a key area within the first network (i.e. the one that was used by both young and old) was associated with decreased efficiency in that network and increased utilization of the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [41] Steffener, 2009, The impact of age-related changes on working memory functional activity, Brain Imaging Behav sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Conclusion report that lower grey-matter volume in a region of the primary network was associated with greater secondary-network recruitment. The Discussion interprets this as compensation for an affected primary network, but the Results report no significant association between regional grey-matter volume and primary-network expression; decreased efficiency of that network was not demonstrated. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, Basak et al.50 had elders play a complex role-playing game,”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol Aging sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method > Participants section says older adults were assigned to play Rise of Nations, and the General Discussion reports transfer benefits after 23.5 hours of training. The paper identifies Rise of Nations as a complex real-time strategy game, not a role-playing game. Its Abstract reports improvement on a subset of cognitive tasks, rather than across the entire battery (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In research with young adults, one particular training approach produced excellent improvement in gameplay, but, more importantly, also showed transfer of training to other tasks.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Gopher, 1994, Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight, Hum Factors source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] Gopher, 1989, Practice under changing priorities: an approach to the training of complex skills, Acta Psychol source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Blumen, 2010, Training cognitive control in older adults with the space fortress game: the role of training instructions and basic motor ability, Front Aging Neurosci sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (‘The space fortress game and emphasis change instructions’; page unavailable) reports that emphasis-change instructions improved Space Fortress performance in younger adults compared with standard instructions. It says those instructions *may* be important for transfer, but does not report that this approach demonstrated transfer to other tasks. The General Discussion (page unavailable) says future studies will determine whether such transfer occurs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who rely more on this alternate network can still perform the task, but do so more poorly.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the average scores on a memory test decline by about one point yearly, but in those with higher educational or occupational attainment scores decline by an additional point each year.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first network was used by both young and old subjects, and consisted of areas often associated with working memory.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the second network was primarily characterized by activation in parahippocampal areas and was used consistently only by the older subjects.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these networks is a group of brain areas that seem to work together as the task is harder.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these assumptions, individuals with higher CR will begin their cognitive decline when pathology is more advanced and thus have less time until they reach the point where pathology overwhelms function.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, while in some ways interdependent, brain reserve and CR make independent in addition to synergistic contributions to understanding individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the cognitive or neural mechanism that underlies this reserve is unknown.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, clinicians must be aware that in the presence of pathology there should still be a period of time during which even the most sensitive measures would fail to detect cognitive change.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals with high reserve, by definition, will not demonstrate disease-related clinical symptoms as early as individuals with low levels of reserve.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Since people with greater reserve should be able to tolerate more AD pathology, the onset of clinical dementia should be delayed.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirectn = 593- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is possible that individuals with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have more resilience in the face of age- or disease-related changes.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
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In the paper
“Only controlled studies can truly establish that some set of interventions or experiences are beneficial.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In schizophrenia, small effects of cognitive remediation were noted, particularly in stable patients and when combined with adjunctive rehabilitation52.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
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In the paper
“While the original observations concern easily measurable variables like education or occupational attainment, more recent studies have delved more deeply into lifestyle factors, cognitively stimulating behaviors, personality factors and the like.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
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In the paper
“However, the exact”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
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In the paper
“These findings support the possibility that it may be possible to intervene even later in life in order to impart reserve, slow age-related cognitive decline, and prolonged healthy aging.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This is a hopeful idea, since it suggests that changes in lifestyle even later in life might impart reserve against age-related cognitive decline or dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Similarly, focused training has improved working memory capacity and shown transfer of training to nontrained working memory tasks51.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies using these endpoints will be very expensive because they will require a large number of participants and will have to be conducted over several years.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While epidemiologic studies can only describe correlations and do not directly test causation, they are useful for deriving hypotheses and exploring ideas.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By shifting emphasis from game to game, participants cannot fall into a fixed strategy. They must develop the ability to deal with the entire task as a whole – skills that might be termed attentional allocation or executive control.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of cognitive reserve, and pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease.
“The assumption is that disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of CR, and that the pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed AD.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
“However, we reasoned that there is common point in all people where the pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No study to date has shown change in slowed rate of cognitive decline in aging or reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“No study to date has shown change in either of these endpoints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology.
“Since the brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to this resilience.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Researchers have long reported that people with more years of formal education are at lower risk for Alzheimer's and other dementias than those with fewer years of formal education.80,[144][145][146][147][148][149]”
From 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2023) · cites this paper as [146]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This concept was theoretically framed by Park and Bischof (2013) as “scaffolding,” similar to the closely related cognitive reserve theory proposed by Stern (2012).”
In the citing paper
“supporting the theory that a greater cognitive reserve could help protect against development of LOAD117.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“The level of education, a surrogate marker of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2012), is an important determinant of the expression of VCI, such that for a given level of neuropathology higher education is associated with less cognitive deficits (Zieren et al., 2013).”
From The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia (2013) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“These findings lead to the suggestion that higher social engagement and support experienced both before and during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic might have had a protective/mitigating role by contributing to cognitive (51) and affective reserve (52).”
From The impact of COVID-19 infection and enforced prolonged social isolation on neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with and without dementia: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that individuals differ in their level of resilience against brain pathology and hence may exhibit differences in cognitive function despite equivalent levels of pathology (Stern, 2002(Stern, , 2012)).”
From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“The theory suggests that individuals differ in their degree of resilience against age-related brain pathology and hence may show differences in cognitive function in relation to an equivalent level of pathology [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve is a theoretical concept that may account for the role of social isolation and its association with cognitive outcomes in later life.”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Such individuals are likely to receive less cognitive stimulation through social contact, resulting in lower cognitive reserve and hence poorer cognitive function [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
Citations
Cites
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Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943
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Neural consequences of enviromental enrichment
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A Meta-Analysis of Cognitive Remediation for Schizophrenia: Methodology and Effect Sizes
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Training and plasticity of working memory
Klingberg, T. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 · Cited by 1,585
Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 601–700 of 3,537
Cai, M., Guo, Z., Xing, G., Peng, H., Zhou, L., Chen, H., McClure, M. A., He, L., Xiong, L., He, B., et al. (2019) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0000000000000304 · Cited by 48
Sunderaraman, P., Maidan, I., Kozlovski, T., Apa, Z. L., Mirelman, A., Hausdorff, J. M., & Stern, Y. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00166 · Cited by 46
“Vocabulary is generally used as one of the proxy measures of cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
Self-citationKutschar, P., Weichbold, M., & Osterbrink, J. (2019) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-019-1258-0 · Cited by 47
Huang, C., Fan, Y., Lee, S., Liu, H., Chen, Y.-L., Lin, C., & Lee, T. M. C. (2019) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsz054 · Cited by 49
“…with age- and diseaserelated neurocognitive changes better than those with lower CR (Steffener & Stern, 2012; Stern, 2012) and, moreover, that levels of CR predict cognitive decline progression in individuals with neurological conditions (Tucker & Stern, 2011; Stern, 2012; Soldan et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialGates, N. J., Rutjes, A. W., Di Nisio, M., Karim, S., Chong, L.-Y., March, E., Martínez, G., & Vernooij, R. W. (2019) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd012278.pub2 · Cited by 46
Consumption of Oleic Acid on the Preservation of Cognitive Functions in Japanese Elderly Individuals
Sakurai, K., Shen, C., Shiraishi, I., Inamura, N., & Hisatsune, T. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13020284 · Cited by 49
Are Brain and Cognitive Reserve Shaped by Early Life Circumstances?
de Rooij, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.825811 · Cited by 38
“CR has been suggested to depend on a range of social, mental and lifestyle factors (Stern, 2012) and is nowadays operationalized as including three components, namely (1) measures of life course related brain changes, insults, disease or risk factors that theoretically impact cognitive outcomes, (2) measures of associ…”
BackgroundPeterson, R. L., George, K. M., Barnes, L. L., Gilsanz, P., Mayeda, E. R., Glymour, M. M., Mungas, D. M., & Whitmer, R. A. (2021) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.29052 · Cited by 45
Morrone, C. D., Lai, A. Y., Bishay, J., Hill, M. E., & McLaurin, J. (2022) · Translational Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/s40035-022-00300-6 · Cited by 43
“Cognitive reserve refers to the variability between individuals to withstand greater degrees of neurodegeneration before exhibiting cognitive impairment [16].”
BackgroundWalsh, S., Causer, R., & Brayne, C. (2019) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2019.1699019 · Cited by 49
“It is hypothesised that high levels of intellectually-stimulating activity across the life course produces a cognitive reserve that mitigates against overt cognitive impairment in the face of neuropathology (Barulli & Stern, 2013; Y. Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundNeth, B. J., Graff‐Radford, J., Mielke, M. M., Przybelski, S. A., Lesnick, T. G., Schwarz, C. G., Reid, R. I., Senjem, M. L., Lowe, V. J., Machulda, M. M., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00355 · Cited by 48
“Many studies on resilience use education, occupation, or lifestyle-social activity engagement as the sole proxy of cognitive resilience (Stern, 2009, 2012; Stern et al., 2018).”
Backgroundvan Loenhoud, A. C., Groot, C., Bocancea, D. I., Barkhof, F., Teunissen, C. E., Scheltens, P., van der Flier, W. M., & Ossenkoppele, R. (2022) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000200116 · Cited by 46
“However, when pathology surpasses a certain threshold, this protective mechanism is no longer sufficient and consequently, cognitive performance decreases at an accelerated rate.(8) Evidence for this manifestation of CR is supported by extensive literature showing that higher educational attainment is associated with…”
BackgroundInfluentialImpact of Education on Memory Deficits in Subclinical Depression
McLaren, M. E., Szymkowicz, S. M., Kirton, J. W., & Dotson, V. M. (2015) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acv038 · Cited by 45
Hurd, M. D., Martorell, P., & Langa, K. M. (2015) · Journal of Population Ageing · doi:10.1007/s12062-015-9112-4 · Cited by 44
“Some authors have attributed a causal, protective effect of education on the risk of dementia (Langa et al. 2008; Stern 2012).”
Witte, M. M., Foster, N. L., Fleisher, A., Williams, M., Quaid, K. A., Wasserman, M. R., Hunt, G., Roberts, J. S., Rabinovici, G. D., Levenson, J. L., et al. (2015) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1016/j.dadm.2015.06.006 · Cited by 44
“Additionally, some patients with high cognitive reserve may tolerate significantly greater amyloid-b burden with fewer symptoms than those with low cognitive reserve, but when they develop dementia, they decline more rapidly [54].”
Backgroundd’Orsi, E., Xavier, A. J., Rafnsson, S. B., Steptoe, A., Hogervorst, E., & Orrell, M. W. (2017) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2017.1360840 · Cited by 51
“Such mechanisms might support the higher cognitive reserve hypothesis as they might help delay the onset of overt cognitive impairment (Liberati, Raffone, & Olivetti Belardinelli, 2011; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundWada, M., Noda, Y., Shinagawa, S., Chung, J. K., Sawada, K., Ogyu, K., Tarumi, R., Tsugawa, S., Miyazaki, T., Yamagata, B., et al. (2018) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-171168 · Cited by 48
Liu, Y., & Lachman, M. E. (2019) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbz020 · Cited by 51
“…have a great degree of cognitive reserve (CR) and show a ic.oup.com /psychsocgerontology/article/75/7/e93/5336661 by U niversity of W isconsin-M adison Libraries user on 09 M arch 2021 reduced risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia (Hall et al., 2007; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialUdeh‐Momoh, C. T., Initiative, A. D. N., Su, B., Evans, S., Zheng, B., Sindi, S., Tzoulaki, I., Perneczky, R., & Middleton, L. T. (2019) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-181030 · Cited by 48
Cespón, J., Rodella, C., Miniussi, C., & Pellicciari, M. C. (2019) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2019.08.016 · Cited by 45
Transcriptional Networks of Microglia in Alzheimer’s Disease and Insights into Pathogenesis
Chew, G., & Petretto, E. G. (2019) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes10100798 · Cited by 46
“Microglia’s role in AD pathogenesis is highly complex and most likely depends on contextual factors such as disease chronicity of inflammation [25], cognitive reserve [30,31], and presence of comorbidities [26,27].”
BackgroundFernández‐Gonzalo, S., Navarra‐Ventura, G., Bacardit, N., Gomà, G., de Haro, C., Subirá, C., López‐Aguilar, J., Magrans, R., Sarlabous, L., Aquino‐Esperanza, J., et al. (2020) · Critical Care · doi:10.1186/s13054-020-03334-2 · Cited by 52
Zijlmans, J. L., Lamballais, S., Lahousse, L., et al. (2021) · The Lancet Healthy Longevity · doi:10.1016/s2666-7568(21)00028-3 · Cited by 45
Mormino, E. C. (2014) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-014-9267-4 · Cited by 44
“Within the reserve framework, an individual with higher reserve is able to remain clinically normal for longer than an individual with lower reserve despite equivalent levels of underlying pathology (Stern 2012).”
Ultrasound delivery of a TrkA agonist confers neuroprotection to Alzheimer-associated pathologies
Xhima, K., Markham-Coultes, K., Hahn Kofoed, R., Saragovi, H. U., Hynynen, K., & Aubert, I. (2022) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awab460 · Cited by 43
Chen, L., & Cao, Q. (2019) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2019.1663491 · Cited by 42
Fancourt, D. E., Geschke, K., Fellgiebel, A., & Wuttke, A. (2020) · Musicae Scientiae · doi:10.1177/1029864920918636 · Cited by 45
“Given the theories of disuse syndrome and cognitive reserve in ageing (Hultsch et al., 1999; Stern, 2012), our findings may be interpreted in a sense that musical training across the lifetime provides cognitive stimulation and increases cognitive reserve and thus postpones cognitive ageing.”
BackgroundGuo, F., Li, Y., Zhang, W., Bian, Z., & Zhang, Y.-B. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.775144 · Cited by 48
“Because BZDs and Z drugs are positive regulators of the GABAA receptor, they will reduce brain activation, decrease synaptic plasticity, and affect the ability of patients to create new memories (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundThe Swiss Brain Health Plan 2023–2033
Bassetti, C. L., Heldner, M. R., Adorjan, K., Albanese, E., Allali, G., Arnold, M., Bègue, I., Bochud, M., Chan, A., Kim, Q., et al. (2023) · Clinical and Translational Neuroscience · doi:10.3390/ctn7040038 · Cited by 46
Kovalchik, S. A., Slaughter, M. E., Miles, J. N. V., Friedman, E. M., & Shih, R. A. (2015) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2015-205600 · Cited by 45
Ossenkoppele, R., Madison, C. M., Oh, H., Wirth, M., van Berckel, B. N. M., & Jagust, W. J. (2013) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bht076 · Cited by 45
“We adjusted the analyses for age, education, and APOE genotype given their effects on [(11)C]PIB retention, [(18)F]FDG uptake, and cognitive scores in the present (see Table 2) and in previous studies (Jagust and Landau 2012; Kantarci et al. 2012; Stern 2012; Vemuri et al. 2012).”
Which types of mental work demands may be associated with reduced risk of dementia?
Then, F., Luck, T., Heser, K., Ernst, A., Posselt, T., Wiese, B., Mamone, S., Brettschneider, C., König, H., Weyerer, S., et al. (2017) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2016.08.008 · Cited by 39
“In that respect, our findings indicate that theories, such as the environmental complexity [4], the “use it or lose it” [6], or the “cognitive reserve” theory [5] should differentiate between the types of mental demands throughout the life course and specify what mental demands drive the empirical effects.”
BackgroundResultHou, Y., Luo, C., Yang, J., Ou, R., Liu, W., Song, W., Gong, Q., & Shang, H. (2016) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-016-8331-9 · Cited by 44
“Likewise, in AD, the hyperconnectivity state reflects adaptive changes as an attempt to maintain cognitive performance before the symptoms of cognitive decline [26, 34].”
Osler, M., Christensen, G. T., Garde, E., Mortensen, E. L., & Christensen, K. (2017) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2017.04.003 · Cited by 43
“In our study, education, height, and early psychiatric comorbidity, which are closely related to deprivation in early life, were not important confounders, suggesting that attenuation of the association in the intrasibling and twin analyses should rather be attributed to other family factors, such as genetic and envir…”
BackgroundBhagwat, N., Pipitone, J., Voineskos, A. N., Chakravarty, M. M., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2019) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1503/jpn.180016 · Cited by 47
“8,32 This motivates approaches that incorporate multiple, distributed phenotypes to predict clinical severity in service of robust diagnostic and prognostic applications.”
Enriched Environment Exposure Accelerates Rodent Driving Skills.
Crawford, L., Knouse, L. E., Kent, M., Vavra, D. T., Harding, O., Leserve, D., Fox, N., Hu, X., Li, P., Glory, C., et al. (2020) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112309 · Cited by 33
Facial Electromyography-based Adaptive Virtual Reality Gaming for Cognitive Training
Reidy, L., Chan, D., Nduka, C. C., & Güneş, H. (2020) · INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MULTIMODAL INTERACTION · doi:10.1145/3382507.3418845 · Cited by 52
“ntion problems (ADHD) [1] and engagement in intellectually stimulating lifestyle activities has been observed to help maintain cognitive function into later life, via enhancement of cognitive reserve [2]. The aim of CT therefore is to deliver such benefits to cognition as a targeted discrete intervention. However, to d…”
BackgroundHasselgren, C., Ekbrand, H., Halleröd, B., Fässberg, M. M., Zettergren, A., Johansson, L. H., Skoog, I. G., & Dellve, L. (2020) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-020-02820-9 · Cited by 46
“Educational differences in dementia are often explained by the cognitive reserve hypothesis, which emphasizes the role of intellectually stimulating activities is preventing symptoms of degenerative brain changes [23, 24].”
BackgroundDíaz-Venegas, C., Samper‐Ternent, R., Michaels-Obregón, A., & Wong, R. (2018) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1501663 · Cited by 43
“25 times greater risk of developing dementia than those with a professional, managerial or technical occupation (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialLee, S. Y., Kang, J. M., Kim, D. J., Woo, S. K., Lee, J., & Cho, S. (2020) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2020.590607 · Cited by 44
“In addition, the participants in our study were in the early stage of cognitive decline and CR might have been utilized as a compensatory mechanism in the aspects of everyday life (Tomaszewski Farias et al., 2018) and neural networks (Liang et al., 2011) against cognitive decline (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundThe protective impact of education on brain structure and function in Alzheimer’s disease
Zhu, W., Li, X., Li, X., Wang, H., Li, M., Gao, Z., Wu, X., Tian, Y., Zhou, S., Wang, K., et al. (2021) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-021-02445-9 · Cited by 43
Applications of artificial intelligence in current pharmacy practice: A scoping review
Jessica, H., Britney, R., Sarira, E.-D., Aslani, P., Joe, Z., & Chaar, B. B. (2024) · Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy · doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2024.12.007 · Cited by 59
Clouston, S., Glymour, M. M., & Terrera, G. M. (2015) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1016/j.dadm.2015.06.001 · Cited by 43
“Results support theories of cognitive reserve [10] and life course theories of cognitive aging [11,36], suggesting that early life investments reap rewards in late-life.”
BackgroundShaik, M. A., Chan, Q. L., Xu, J., Xu, X. Y., Hui, R. J. Y., Chong, S. S. T., Chen, C., & Dong, Y. (2016) · Journal of the American Medical Directors Association · doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2015.12.007 · Cited by 43
Ihle, A., Mons, U., Perna, L., Oris, M., Fagot, D., Gabriel, R., & Kliegel, M. (2016) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000448916 · Cited by 44
Living Alone With Cognitive Impairment
Gibson, A., & Richardson, V. (2016) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/1533317516673154 · Cited by 43
“A second and more recent explanation for the significant association between education and CI lies with the cognitive reserve framework.(35) According to Stern, individuals with substantial cognitive reserve less often succumb to CI, or if they do, they succumb later than individuals with limited cognitive reserve.”
InfluentialCognitive Reserve Relates to Functional Network Efficiency in Alzheimer’s Disease
Weiler, M., Casseb, R. F., de Campos, B. M., Teixeira, C. V. L., Carletti‐Cassani, A. F. M. K., Vicentini, J. E., Magalhães, T. N. C., de Almeira, D. Q., Talib, L. L., Forlenza, O. V., et al. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00255 · Cited by 45
“This hypothesis claims that individuals with higher CR can better maintain cognitive functions despite AD pathology (Stern, 2012), thus consisting in an important factor in the fight against the disease.”
BackgroundIhle, A., Ghisletta, P., Ballhausen, N., Fagot, D., Vallet, F., Baeriswyl, M., Sauter, J., Oris, M., Maurer, J., & Kliegel, M. (2018) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.10.013 · Cited by 43
“Specifically, from a more general conceptual perspective, following models of vulnerability (Spini, Bernardi, & Oris, 2017) and cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012), we argue that certain individuals are more vulnerable to impairments in human functioning such as cognition because of insufficient…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialO’Shea, D. M., Langer, K. G., Woods, A. J., Porges, E. C., Williamson, J. B., O’Shea, A. M., & Cohen, R. A. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00361 · Cited by 46
“Brain reserve, or passive threshold theories, propose that brain properties (volume, neuronal count, and gray matter density) are better indicators of performance than the presence of pathology (e.g., white matter damage, beta amyloid) (Satz, 1993; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialPhysical activity and cognition: A narrative review of the evidence for older adults
Etnier, J. L., Drollette, E. S., & Slutsky, A. B. (2018) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.12.006 · Cited by 55
“Therefore, the amount of resources available, otherwise described as level of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2002, 2012), may impact adaptations to physical activity or in relation to fitness such that individuals would experience more efficient processing (i.e. reduced percent change from rest) or…”
BackgroundSocial Inequalities and the Road to Allostatic Load: From Vulnerability to Resilience
Juster, R., Seeman, T. E., McEwen, B. S., Picard, M. A., Mahar, I., Mechawar, N., Sindi, S., Smith, N. G., Souza‐Talarico, J. N., Sarnyai, Z., et al. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy408 · Cited by 46
Anderson, N. D. (2015) · The Encyclopedia of Adulthood and Aging · doi:10.1002/9781118521373.wbeaa244 · Cited by 44
García, A. M., Sedeño, L., Herrera, E., Couto, B., & Ibáñez, A. M. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2016.00335 · Cited by 42
“Second, we have entertained the hypothesis that this may be an extreme case of cognitive reserve, the brain’s capacity for functional resilience following damage or throughout healthy aging (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundAge of Migration and Cognitive Function Among Older Latinos in the United States
García, M. A., Ortiz, K. S., Arévalo, S., Diminich, E. D., Briceño, E. M., Vega, I. E., & Tarraf, W. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-191296 · Cited by 42
Jünemann, K., Marié, D., Worschech, F., Scholz, D. S., Grouiller, F., Kliegel, M., Ville, D. V. D., James, C. E., Krüger, T. H. C., ALTENMÜLLER, E. O., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.817889 · Cited by 46
“…half women, and half men) from each time point were randomly selected to generate an unbiased study-specific FOD template (population template) to which all the FODs of participants were non-linearly registered (Raffelt et al., 2011, 2012) and segmented to get fiber-specific fixels within each voxel.”
BackgroundMethodThe relationship between cognitive reserve and cognition in healthy adults: a systematic review
Panico, F., Sagliano, L., Magliacano, A., Santangelo, G., & Trojano, L. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03523-y · Cited by 42
“In this sense, the present findings complemented evidence showing a significant positive relationship between CR and cognition in later life (Baker et al., 2017; Opdebeeck et al., 2016) and in specific brain diseases (Santangelo et al., 2019a, 2019b; Stern, 2012; Umarova et al., 2019).”
BackgroundResultThe association of MIND diet with cognitive resilience to neuropathologies
Wagner, M., Agarwal, P., Leurgans, S. E., Bennett, D. A. A., Schneider, J. A., Capuano, A. W., & Grodstein, F. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12982 · Cited by 45
“Heart disease 66 (11) 30 (13) 13 (7) 23 (16)”
Marié, D., Müller, C. A. H., ALTENMÜLLER, E. O., Ville, D. V. D., Jünemann, K., Scholz, D. S., Krüger, T. H. C., Worschech, F., Kliegel, M., Sinke, C., et al. (2023) · Neuroimage Reports · doi:10.1016/j.ynirp.2023.100166 · Cited by 48
“The aging brain retains considerable plasticity (Boyke et al., 2008; Grady, 2012), relating to cognitive reserve (Esiri and Chance, 2012; Stern, 2012) – the ability to cope with damage and decline.”
BackgroundPredictors of Optimal Cognitive Aging in 80+ Women: The Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study
Goveas, J. S., Rapp, S. R., Hogan, P. E., Driscoll, I. F., Tindle, H. A., Smith, J. C., Kesler, S. R., Zaslavsky, O., Rossom, R. C., Ockene, J. K., et al. (2016) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glv055 · Cited by 43
“The effects of education further underscore the role of cognitive reserve capacity in maintaining cognitive function even into later years (32).”
BackgroundImpact of literacy and years of education on the diagnosis of dementia: A population-based study
Contador, I., del Ser, T., Velasco, S. L., Villarejo‐Galende, A., Benito‐León, J., & Bermejo‐Pareja, F. (2016) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1204992 · Cited by 42
“…either a proxy for the brain’s capacity (e.g., synaptic density) to tolerate neuropathology (passive approach) or an index of the brain’s ability to cope with damage using preexisting cognitive processing approaches or compensatory mechanisms (active models; for a review, see Stern, 2002, 2012).”
BackgroundFacets of Conscientiousness and risk of dementia
Sutin, A. R., Stéphan, Y., & Terracciano, A. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291717002306 · Cited by 40
“The concept of cognitive reserve suggests that cognitive engagement – whether higher education, occupational complexity, leisure activities, etc. – provides a reserve that helps the brain maintain function even in the presence of neuropathology (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundData‐driven approaches for tau‐PET imaging biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease
Vogel, J. W., Mattsson, N., Iturria‐Medina, Y., Strandberg, O. T., Schöll, M., Dansereau, C. L., Villeneuve, S., van der Flier, W. M., Scheltens, P., Bellec, P., et al. (2018) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24401 · Cited by 44
“reserve (Stern, 2012), and suggests that more highly educated sub-”
BackgroundAdolescent Cognitive Aptitudes and Later-in-Life Alzheimer Disease and Related Disorders
Huang, A., Strombotne, K. L., Horner, E. M., & Lapham, S. (2018) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1726 · Cited by 44
Roe, C. M., Ances, B. M., Head, D. M., Babulal, G. M., Stout, S. H., Grant, E., Hassenstab, J. J., Xiong, C., Holtzman, D. M., Benzinger, T. L. S., et al. (2018) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awy244 · Cited by 42
Dougherty, R. J., Boots, E. A., Lindheimer, J. B., Stegner, A. J., Riper, S. M. V., Edwards, D. F., Gallagher, C. L., Carlsson, C. M., Rowley, H. A., Bendlin, B. B., et al. (2019) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-019-00068-w · Cited by 45
Xu, L., Long, J., Su, Z., Xu, B., Lin, M. L., Chen, Y., & Long, D. (2019) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2019.104586 · Cited by 41
Pérez-González, M., Mendióroz, M., Badesso, S., Sucunza, D., Roldán, M., Espelosin, M., Ursúa, S., Luján, R., Cuadrado‐Tejedor, M., & García‐Osta, A. (2020) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101818 · Cited by 46
Reynolds, G., Willment, K., & Gale, S. A. (2020) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2020.10.041 · Cited by 50
Social Health Is Associated With Structural Brain Changes in Older Adults: The Rotterdam Study
van der Velpen, I. F., Melis, R. J. F., Perry, M., Vernooij-Dassen, M. J. F. J., Ikram, M. A., & Vernooij, M. W. (2021) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.01.009 · Cited by 44
Moussavi, Z., Kimura, K., Kehler, L. F., Francisco, C. D. O., & Lithgow, B. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging · doi:10.3389/fragi.2021.632545 · Cited by 43
“This hope is based on the neuroplasticity of the brain achievable even in old age as well as the individuals’ cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundSleep moderates the relationship between amyloid beta and memory recall
Wilckens, K. A., Tudorascu, D., Snitz, B. E., Price, J. C., Aizenstein, H. J., López, O. L., Erickson, K. I., Lopresti, B. J., Laymon, C. M., Minhas, D. S., et al. (2018) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.07.011 · Cited by 46
“…have shown that high functioning individuals with high levels of Aβ often show more dramatic disease progression once symptoms begin to appear (Stern, 2012) and the main effect of cognitive reserve is to stave off the onset of AD rather than slow the rate of decline once the protective…”
BackgroundInfluentialDing, D., Zhao, Q., Wu, W., Xiao, Z., Liang, X., Luo, J., & Hong, Z. (2020) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12159 · Cited by 41
Recognition of social health: A conceptual framework in the context of dementia research
Vernooij-Dassen, M. J. F. J., Verspoor, E., Samtani, S., Sachdev, P. S., Ikram, M. A., Vernooij, M. W., Hubers, C., Chattat, R., Lenart‐Bugla, M., Rymaszewska, J., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1052009 · Cited by 43
Al‐Ezzi, A. A. A., Arechavala, R. J., Butler, R., Nolty, A., Kang, J. J. H., Shimojo, S., Wu, D.-A. J., Fonteh, A. N., Kleinman, M. T., Kloner, R. A., et al. (2024) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-024-06673-w · Cited by 47
“CR is assumed to reduce the risk of cognitive decline associated with brain changes related to aging by promoting the use of compensatory cognitive processes 65 .”
Henstridge, C. M., Jackson, R. J., Kim, J. M., Herrmann, A. G., Wright, A. K., Harris, S. E., Bastin, M. E., Starr, J. M., Wardlaw, J. M., Gillingwater, T. H., et al. (2015) · Acta Neuropathologica Communications · doi:10.1186/s40478-015-0232-0 · Cited by 40
“from other brain regions and thus retain general cognitive ability, despite underlying pathology [60].”
BackgroundDurazzo, T. C., Mattsson, N., Weiner, M. W., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2015) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntv075 · Cited by 41
“17,46 Despite markedly elevated cortical amyloid deposition and decreased glucose metabolism, smoking APOE4+ were cognitively-normal, which, at least partially, may be related to survivor bias 44 and/or high cognitive reserve 47 in this highly educated Caucasian sample.”
Elkana, O., Eisikovits, O. R., Oren, N., Betzale, V., Giladi, N., & Ash, E. L. (2015) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-150562 · Cited by 42
“presence of varying amounts of brain damage [13].”
BackgroundSumowski, J. F., Rocca, M. A., Leavitt, V. M., Riccitelli, G. C., Sandry, J. D., DeLuca, J., Comı, G., & Filippi, M. (2015) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.12662 · Cited by 41
“which states that elders (for a review see [6]) and MS Correspondence: J.”
Adaptation of the Cognitive Reserve Index Questionnaire (CRIq) for the Greek population
Maiovis, P., Ioannidis, P., Nucci, M., Gotzamani-Psarrakou, A., & Karacostas, D. (2016) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10072-015-2457-x · Cited by 37
“Indeed, recent research indicates that CR is shaped during an active day to day procedure with cumulative effects throughout a person’s entire life [3].”
Kuiper, J. S., Voshaar, R. C. O., Zuidema, S. U., Stolk, R. P., Zuidersma, M., & Smidt, N. (2016) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.4567 · Cited by 41
“The concept of cognitive reserve suggests that social interaction affects brain structure and results in more efficient use of brain networks (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialLiving Alone and Dementia Incidence: A Clinical-Based Study in People With Mild Cognitive Impairment
Grande, G., Vetrano, D. L., Cova, I., Pomati, S., Mattavelli, D., Maggiore, L., Cucumo, V., Ghiretti, R., Vanacore, N., Mariani, C. B., et al. (2018) · Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1177/0891988718774425 · Cited by 39
Dang, C., Harrington, K., Lim, Y. Y., Ames, D. J., Hassenstab, J. J., Laws, S. M., Yassi, N., Hickey, M., Rainey‐Smith, S. R., Robertson, J. S., et al. (2018) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acy078 · Cited by 41
“Individuals with high cognitive reserve are typically identified using proxy measures such as education, premorbid IQ and cognitive activity, and may display greater cognitive performance with equivalent levels of AD neuropathological markers compared to individuals with low cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialPietzuch, M., King, A. E., Ward, D. D., & Vickers, J. C. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00030 · Cited by 45
“Factors such as lifetime experience, educational and occupational attainment, and socioeconomic status are posited to play a significant role in the development of cognitive reserve (Stern, 2009, 2012).”
BackgroundNovel Alzheimer’s disease subtypes identified using a data and knowledge driven strategy
Mitelpunkt, A., Galili, T., Kozlovski, T., Bregman, N., Shachar, N., Marcus-Kalish, M., & Benjamini, Y. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-57785-2 · Cited by 40
Chen, Y., Li, Y., Fang, J.-Y., Li, P., & Li, F. (2020) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2020.112834 · Cited by 42
Sardella, A., Catalano, A., Lenzo, V., Bellone, F., Corica, F., Quattropani, M. C. A., & Basile, G. (2020) · Geriatrics and gerontology international/Geriatrics & gerontology international · doi:10.1111/ggi.14040 · Cited by 42
Guo, X., Yamashita, M., Suzuki, M., Ohsawa, C., Asano, K., Abe, N., Soshi, T., & Sekiyama, K. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25298 · Cited by 46
“…& Stern, 2003; Small, Dixon, McArdle, & Grimm, 2012), which can maintain or even enhance “cognitive reserve” (Akbaraly et al., 2009; Scarmeas & Stern, 2003; Stern, 2012; Stern et al., 1994), a key factor that can explain individual differences in preserved cognitive functions among elderly people.”
BackgroundAmyloid Positivity in the Alzheimer/Subcortical-Vascular Spectrum
Kang, S. H., Kim, M. E., Jang, H., Kwon, H., Lee, H., Kim, H. J., Seo, S. W., & Na, D. L. (2021) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000011833 · Cited by 41
Plini, E. R. G., O’Hanlon, E., Boyle, R. T., Sibilia, F., Rikhye, G., Kenney, J. P. M., Whelan, R., Melnychuk, M. C., Robertson, I. H., & Dockree, P. M. (2021) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells10071829 · Cited by 45
“This resilience to brain damage has been concep- 67 tualised by Yaakov Stern (2002) [5] as a model of reserve that moderates between the de- 68 gree of neural pathology and clinical outcome.”
BackgroundImproving Older People’s Lives Through Digital Technology and Practices
Marston, H. R., & Musselwhite, C. (2021) · Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1177/23337214211036255 · Cited by 45
“Wu et al. (2019) conclude by noting how learning to use digital technology may protect people from cognitive decline in line with previous research (e.g. Stern, 2012; Valenzuela et al., 2008).”
ResultBugos, J. A., & Wang, Y. (2022) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbac021 · Cited by 41
Kok, F. K., van Leerdam, S., & de Lange, E. C. M. (2022) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-210607 · Cited by 46
“Nexttocognitivereserve(seethesectiononNDAN on a body level) resiliency to cognitive decline in NDAN could result from brain reserve [174, 175, 214].”
Chen, C., Tian, Y., Ni, L., Xu, Q., Hu, Y., & Peng, B. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24110 · Cited by 44
“Some individuals ’ bodies can accept these changes and maintain normal function [25,26].”
BackgroundCaffò, A. O., Lopez, A., Spano, G., Saracino, G., Stasolla, F., Ciriello, G., Grattagliano, I., Lancioni, G. E., & Bosco, A. (2016) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-016-0580-z · Cited by 41
“In this case, it would be useful for the clinician to predispose more challenging and more pathology-specific diagnostic tests for people with high degrees of CR [7].”
BackgroundResultExecutive function, episodic memory, and Medicare expenditures
Bender, A. C., Austin, A. M., Grodstein, F., & Bynum, J. (2017) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2016.12.013 · Cited by 40
“Participants in this study have all achieved advanced education and are likely to have better average cognition than the general population because of their education; thus, we may be underestimating the impact cognitive impairment would have on health care expenditures in the general population [50].”
BackgroundThe role of cognitive reserve in cognitive aging: what we can learn from Parkinson’s disease
Ciccarelli, N., Monaco, M. R. L., Fusco, D., Vetrano, D. L., Zuccalà, G., Bernabei, R., Brandi, V., Pisciotta, M. S., & Silveri, M. C. (2017) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-017-0838-0 · Cited by 40
“As regards the compensation mechanism, it has been hypothesized that CR can rely on general semantic knowledge, problem solving abilities, and executive functions [3, 4].”
BackgroundThe Relationship between Cognitive Reserve and Math Abilities
Arcara, G., Mondini, S., Alice, B., Palmer, K., Meneghello, F., & Semenza, C. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00429 · Cited by 45
“Cognitive Reserve derives from a broad combination of experiences a person has throughout life, shaped by education and learning in different contexts, and has a prominent role in determining the early impact of degenerative diseases (Fratiglioni and Wang, 2007; Stern, 2009, 2012).”
BackgroundCognition in Adolescent and Young Adults Diagnosed With Cancer: An Understudied Problem
Jim, H., Jennewein, S., Quinn, G. P., Reed, D. R., & Small, B. J. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1200/jco.2018.78.0627 · Cited by 41
“Cognitive reserve refers to compensatory ability in which performance on cognitive tests is better than would be expected on the basis of the degree of brain pathology.(27,28) Cognitive reserve has been associated with less-severe cognitive impairment after chemotherapy in adult patients with cancer.”
BackgroundJeon, S. Y., Byun, M. S., Yi, D., Lee, J. H., Choe, Y. M., Ko, K., Sohn, B. K., Choi, H. J., Lee, J., & Lee, D. Y. (2018) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.11.001 · Cited by 42
Does cognitive reserve play any role in multiple sclerosis? A meta-analytic study
Santangelo, G., Altieri, M., Gallo, A., & Trojano, L. (2019) · Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.msard.2019.02.017 · Cited by 39
Metadata
- Authors
- Stern, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stern, Yaakov
- ORCID
- Stern, Yaakov
- Venue
- The Lancet Neurology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1006-1012
- ISSN
- 1474-4422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3507991
- OpenAlex
- W2144907160
- Cited by
- 3,557
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 412 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 311 · 2023: 343 · 2022: 281 · 2021: 303 · 2020: 350 · 2019: 292 · 2018: 244 · 2017: 213 · 2016: 176 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 93 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- The Lancet Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026158, R01AG014671)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, brain reserve, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive aging, dementia risk, educational attainment, occupational attainment, leisure
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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