The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 54 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Open accessAbstract
The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that cognitive reserve explains why people differ in how much Alzheimer’s disease pathology or age-related brain change they can tolerate while still functioning. It synthesizes epidemiologic, neuroimaging, postmortem, and intervention evidence, and concludes that reserve is modifiable but that causal interventions remain unproven.
Key findings
- Reserve is split into brain reserve, a more passive quantitative tolerance tied to brain size or neurons/synapses, and cognitive reserve, an active functional process in which pre-existing or compensatory networks help cope with damage.
- Epidemiologic studies cited found that fewer than 8 years of education carried 2.2 times higher dementia risk, low occupational attainment carried 2.25 times higher risk, and greater leisure activity was linked to 38% lower risk; a review of 22 cohort studies estimated higher reserve reduced dementia risk by 46%.
- After Alzheimer’s disease becomes clinically apparent, higher reserve is associated with faster decline: memory scores fell about one point yearly on average, with an additional point yearly in those with higher education or occupation.
- Imaging and autopsy evidence indicated that at matched clinical severity, higher education was linked to greater parietotemporal blood-flow deficit and, in 130 elders, each additional year of education reduced the pathology–cognition association by 0.088 standard units; fMRI work distinguished neural reserve from neural compensation.
Methods
- Narrative review by the author, integrating his group’s and others’ epidemiologic cohort studies, functional and resting neuroimaging studies, postmortem analyses, and cognitive or exercise intervention trials.
- Cited samples include 593 non-demented adults aged 60 or older followed for 4 years, 130 elders who had cognitive evaluation before autopsy, and a preliminary 90-person older-adult Space Fortress training study.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis rather than a new primary study or formal meta-analysis; it draws on a cited systematic review of 22 cohort studies for one pooled estimate.
Limitations
- Stated: epidemiologic evidence is correlational and cannot establish causation; controlled intervention studies are needed, and no study to date has shown changes in the key endpoints of slowed cognitive decline or reduced Alzheimer’s disease risk.
- Stated: clinical use of biomarkers and imaging for reserve is premature because prognostic implications are not fully established, and cognitive training evidence is mixed.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without formal risk-of-bias assessment, many findings come from the author’s own research program, and the interaction between brain reserve and cognitive reserve remains unresolved.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
39 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 No basis given · 10 Supported · 10 Own result · 8 Partly supported · 5 Supported so far · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This idea is supported by a set of studies that suggest that prevalence or incidence of dementia is lower in individuals with larger brains13, 14.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Katzman, 1988, Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques, Ann Neurol source
- Supportedcites [14] Schofield, 1997, An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging, Neurology source
The Discussion (p. 5) reports that smaller head circumference was associated with higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. The paper uses head circumference as an index of premorbid brain size (p. 1), so its finding supports the citing sentence’s hedged association. This study measured prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, not incidence of dementia generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, compared to individuals with lower CR, those with higher CR performed better even when they use the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [42] Steffener, 2011, Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve, Brain Imaging Behav source
The Results (Model C) report that, in older adults, higher cognitive reserve reduced the negative effect of network 2 expression on task performance. The Discussion likewise says older adults with greater reserve maintained performance better as network 2 expression increased. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those who engaged in more leisure activities had 38% less risk of developing dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [24] Scarmeas, 2001, Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Neurology source
The Discussion explicitly states that subjects with high leisure activity had 38% less risk of developing dementia. The Results report a relative risk of 0.62 (95% CI 0.46–0.83), consistent with that figure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The rate of decline is more rapid in individuals with high reserve than those with low reserve, even when accounting for a multitude of other factors that may contribute to disease course27, 28, 46.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [27] Stern, 1999, Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve?, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The DOI was not indexed for paper-scoped Semantic Scholar search, so the cited paper’s full text could not be checked directly. A systematic review, “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis” (search score 0.789), explicitly attributes more rapid memory decline in Alzheimer’s patients with higher education and occupational attainment to Stern et al. (1999). This supports the central claim, though the retrieved passage does not verify which other factors the original analysis accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
No paper-scoped Semantic Scholar snippets were available for Scarmeas et al. (2006). However, “Higher education affects accelerated cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease” explicitly cites Scarmeas et al. (2006) among studies finding more rapid cognitive decline after Alzheimer’s onset in patients with higher education (snippet score 0.534). This supports the claim through a secondary citation, although the available evidence does not independently verify which other factors Scarmeas et al. adjusted for. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Supportedcites [46] Hall, 2007, Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Hall’s (2007) title establishes the finding of delayed accelerated memory decline in people who develop dementia. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Episodic memory performance in a multi-ethnic longitudinal study of 13,037 elderly” describes the same pattern: education is associated with a delayed change point followed by faster decline (score 0.52). Hall’s full text was unavailable in the paper-scoped search, so the specific assertion about accounting for other factors could not be checked directly; the available evidence supports the core paraphrase, not every qualification. (LLM, conf=0.72)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In a young group of subjects we identified an activation network that was expressed during the stimulus presentation phase of both tasks and whose increase in expression with increasing load correlated with CR.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Stern, 2008, A common neural network for cognitive reserve in verbal and object working memory in young but not old, Cereb Cortex source
The Discussion identifies a pattern in young subjects during stimulus presentation whose load-related activation had a similar relationship with cognitive reserve in both the letter and shape tasks. The Canonical Variates Analysis reports significant expression of that pattern in both tasks and relates its load-related expression to cognitive-reserve scores. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Similar analysis demonstrated a comparable protective effect of occupational attainment33 and leisure activities34.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Stern, 1995, Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [34] Scarmeas, 2003, Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Arch Neurol source
The cited paper’s Results report an inverse association between activity scores and cerebral blood flow after controlling for clinical severity, which the authors interpret as consistent with cognitive reserve. The Conclusions describe analogous findings for occupational attainment and note evidence linking leisure activities to reduced dementia risk. The citation supports the leisure-activities part of the sentence; occupational attainment has a separate citation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, at a given level of clinical severity, AD patients with higher education have a more severe pattern of AD-related changes on PET scan than those with lower education44, 45.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Garibotto, 2008, Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [45] Kemppainen, 2008, Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Abstract reports that high- and low-educated patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease had the same degree of cognitive deterioration, while the high-educated group showed greater amyloid-tracer uptake and lower glucose metabolism on PET. The Discussion likewise describes more pronounced amyloid accumulation and neuronal dysfunction in the high-educated group. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In AD patients matched for clinical severity, we found an inverse relationship between resting rCBF and years of education32.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Stern, 1992, Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Procedures (p. 2) state that rCBF was measured under resting conditions. The Results (pp. 2–3) report greater parietotemporal flow reductions with more education in AD groups that did not differ on clinical measures; the relationship at the P3 detector remained significant after controlling for dementia severity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The neural implementation of CR might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation16, 38.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
In “Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR,” Stern explicitly says that the neural implementation of cognitive reserve might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation. The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section also describes them as two proposed components. (LLM, conf=0.95)
- Supportedcites [38] Stern, 2005, Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults, Cereb Cortex source
The Introduction (p. 1) explicitly proposes two complementary facets of the neural implementation of cognitive reserve: neural reserve and neural compensation. The paper then defines and contrasts them in the Introduction (pp. 1–2). (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These observations using cerebral blood flow have been replicated by other groups as well35, 36.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Alexander, 1997, Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Am J Psychiatry source
- Supportedcites [36] Perneczky, 2006, Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry source
The Results report an inverse association between schooling and glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. The Discussion says these findings are supported by other groups’ cerebral-blood-flow studies, while noting that the results do not match exactly because of differences in samples and methods. This paper used FDG-PET rather than measuring cerebral blood flow itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, the concept of CR suggests that the brain actively attempts to cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches15, 16.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Stern, 2002, What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section states that active models such as CR propose that the brain copes with damage using pre-existing cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory processes. This directly supports the paraphrase; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We replicated this observation in patients with incident AD28 and also found more rapid decline in cognitive function in AD patients who engaged in more leisure activities prior to dementia onset29.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Supportedcites [29] Helzner, 2007, Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Using a covariance method to analyze the imaging data, we identified a spatial pattern of fMRI activation that was expressed by both groups and whose expression increased as the task became more difficult.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] Stern, 2012, Task difficulty modulates young-old differences in network expression, Brain Res source
The Functional imaging section identifies a spatial pattern common to young and old participants. The Discussion states that its expression increased logarithmically with task difficulty. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In a follow-up analysis41, we found that atrophy in a key area within the first network (i.e. the one that was used by both young and old) was associated with decreased efficiency in that network and increased utilization of the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [41] Steffener, 2009, The impact of age-related changes on working memory functional activity, Brain Imaging Behav sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Conclusion report that lower grey-matter volume in a region of the primary network was associated with greater secondary-network recruitment. The Discussion interprets this as compensation for an affected primary network, but the Results report no significant association between regional grey-matter volume and primary-network expression; decreased efficiency of that network was not demonstrated. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, Basak et al.50 had elders play a complex role-playing game,”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol Aging sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method > Participants section says older adults were assigned to play Rise of Nations, and the General Discussion reports transfer benefits after 23.5 hours of training. The paper identifies Rise of Nations as a complex real-time strategy game, not a role-playing game. Its Abstract reports improvement on a subset of cognitive tasks, rather than across the entire battery (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In research with young adults, one particular training approach produced excellent improvement in gameplay, but, more importantly, also showed transfer of training to other tasks.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Gopher, 1994, Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight, Hum Factors source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] Gopher, 1989, Practice under changing priorities: an approach to the training of complex skills, Acta Psychol source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Blumen, 2010, Training cognitive control in older adults with the space fortress game: the role of training instructions and basic motor ability, Front Aging Neurosci sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (‘The space fortress game and emphasis change instructions’; page unavailable) reports that emphasis-change instructions improved Space Fortress performance in younger adults compared with standard instructions. It says those instructions *may* be important for transfer, but does not report that this approach demonstrated transfer to other tasks. The General Discussion (page unavailable) says future studies will determine whether such transfer occurs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who rely more on this alternate network can still perform the task, but do so more poorly.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the average scores on a memory test decline by about one point yearly, but in those with higher educational or occupational attainment scores decline by an additional point each year.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first network was used by both young and old subjects, and consisted of areas often associated with working memory.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the second network was primarily characterized by activation in parahippocampal areas and was used consistently only by the older subjects.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these networks is a group of brain areas that seem to work together as the task is harder.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these assumptions, individuals with higher CR will begin their cognitive decline when pathology is more advanced and thus have less time until they reach the point where pathology overwhelms function.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, while in some ways interdependent, brain reserve and CR make independent in addition to synergistic contributions to understanding individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the cognitive or neural mechanism that underlies this reserve is unknown.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, clinicians must be aware that in the presence of pathology there should still be a period of time during which even the most sensitive measures would fail to detect cognitive change.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals with high reserve, by definition, will not demonstrate disease-related clinical symptoms as early as individuals with low levels of reserve.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Since people with greater reserve should be able to tolerate more AD pathology, the onset of clinical dementia should be delayed.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirectn = 593- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is possible that individuals with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have more resilience in the face of age- or disease-related changes.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
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In the paper
“Only controlled studies can truly establish that some set of interventions or experiences are beneficial.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In schizophrenia, small effects of cognitive remediation were noted, particularly in stable patients and when combined with adjunctive rehabilitation52.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
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In the paper
“While the original observations concern easily measurable variables like education or occupational attainment, more recent studies have delved more deeply into lifestyle factors, cognitively stimulating behaviors, personality factors and the like.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
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In the paper
“However, the exact”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings support the possibility that it may be possible to intervene even later in life in order to impart reserve, slow age-related cognitive decline, and prolonged healthy aging.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is a hopeful idea, since it suggests that changes in lifestyle even later in life might impart reserve against age-related cognitive decline or dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Similarly, focused training has improved working memory capacity and shown transfer of training to nontrained working memory tasks51.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies using these endpoints will be very expensive because they will require a large number of participants and will have to be conducted over several years.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While epidemiologic studies can only describe correlations and do not directly test causation, they are useful for deriving hypotheses and exploring ideas.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By shifting emphasis from game to game, participants cannot fall into a fixed strategy. They must develop the ability to deal with the entire task as a whole – skills that might be termed attentional allocation or executive control.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of cognitive reserve, and pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease.
“The assumption is that disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of CR, and that the pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed AD.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
“However, we reasoned that there is common point in all people where the pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No study to date has shown change in slowed rate of cognitive decline in aging or reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“No study to date has shown change in either of these endpoints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology.
“Since the brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to this resilience.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Researchers have long reported that people with more years of formal education are at lower risk for Alzheimer's and other dementias than those with fewer years of formal education.80,[144][145][146][147][148][149]”
From 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2023) · cites this paper as [146]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This concept was theoretically framed by Park and Bischof (2013) as “scaffolding,” similar to the closely related cognitive reserve theory proposed by Stern (2012).”
In the citing paper
“supporting the theory that a greater cognitive reserve could help protect against development of LOAD117.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“The level of education, a surrogate marker of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2012), is an important determinant of the expression of VCI, such that for a given level of neuropathology higher education is associated with less cognitive deficits (Zieren et al., 2013).”
From The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia (2013) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“These findings lead to the suggestion that higher social engagement and support experienced both before and during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic might have had a protective/mitigating role by contributing to cognitive (51) and affective reserve (52).”
From The impact of COVID-19 infection and enforced prolonged social isolation on neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with and without dementia: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that individuals differ in their level of resilience against brain pathology and hence may exhibit differences in cognitive function despite equivalent levels of pathology (Stern, 2002(Stern, , 2012)).”
From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“The theory suggests that individuals differ in their degree of resilience against age-related brain pathology and hence may show differences in cognitive function in relation to an equivalent level of pathology [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve is a theoretical concept that may account for the role of social isolation and its association with cognitive outcomes in later life.”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Such individuals are likely to receive less cognitive stimulation through social contact, resulting in lower cognitive reserve and hence poorer cognitive function [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
Citations
Cites
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Cognability: An Ecological Theory of neighborhoods and cognitive aging
Finlay, J., Esposito, M. H., Langa, K. M., Judd, S. E., & Clarke, P. J. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115220 · Cited by 99
Brain network alterations and vulnerability to simulated neurodegeneration in breast cancer
Kesler, S. R., Watson, C., & Blayney, D. W. (2015) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2015.04.015 · Cited by 94
“Reduced brain network attack tolerance is consistent with lower cognitive reserve as well as the frail phenotype of aging, both significant predictors of cognitive decline (Mandelblatt, M AN US CR IP T AC CE PT ED et al., 2013;Stern, 2012).”
InfluentialAguirre-Acevedo, D. C., Lopera, F., Henao, E., Tirado, V., Muñoz, C., Giraldo, M., Bangdiwala, S. I., Reiman, E. M., Tariot, P. N., Langbaum, J. B., et al. (2016) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2015.4851 · Cited by 90
Complexity As Key to Designing Cognitive-Friendly Environments for Older People
Cassarino, M., & Setti, A. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01329 · Cited by 97
“…planning and design as more user-centered (Gehl, 2010; Gehl and Svarre, 2013) and, in the light of global aging and urbanization (World Health Organization, 2007; Beard and Petitot, 2010), more facilitating for aging individuals, or “age-friendly” (World Health Organization, 2002, 2007, 2012).”
Dual-Task Exercise to Improve Cognition and Functional Capacity of Healthy Older Adults
Jardim, N. Y. V., Bento-Torres, N. V. O., da Costa, V. O., Carvalho, J. P. R., Pontes, H. T. S., Tomás, A. M., Sosthenes, M. C. K., Erickson, K. I., Bento‐Torres, J., & Diniz, C. W. P. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.589299 · Cited by 105
“Physical exercise and/or cognitive training during life are associated with neuroprotection through Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 12 February 2021 | Volume 13 | Article 589299 an increased cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012; Perneczky, 2019).”
BackgroundCognitive Resilience to Apolipoprotein E ε4
Kaup, A. R., Nettiksimmons, J., Harris, T. B., Sink, K. M., Satterfield, S., Metti, A. L., Ayonayon, H. N., & Yaffe, K. S. (2015) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2014.3978 · Cited by 89
Neuropathological approaches to cerebral aging and neuroplasticity
Jellinger, K. A., & Attems, J. (2013) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2013.15.1/kjellinger · Cited by 94
Canevelli, M., Quarata, F., Remiddi, F., Lucchini, F., Lacorte, E., Vanacore, N., Bruno, G., & Cesari, M. (2016) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2016.11.035 · Cited by 97
Potential Therapeutics for Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Dementia
Sun, M. (2017) · Current Neuropharmacology · doi:10.2174/1570159x15666171016164734 · Cited by 87
“brain reserve [114, 116, 117], related to differences in brain size and structure, such as neuronal and synaptic density; 2) cognitive reserve [118-120], about the differences in the ability to make flexible and efficient use of existing brain resources when engaged in a cognitive task; and 3) network maintenance [121…”
BackgroundEmerging Therapeutics for Alzheimer's Disease
Chiang, K., & Koo, E. H. (2014) · The Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology · doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-011613-135932 · Cited by 95
The Effects of Cognitive Training for Elderly: Results from My Mind Project
Giuli, C., Papa, R., Lattanzio, F., & Postacchini, D. (2016) · Rejuvenation Research · doi:10.1089/rej.2015.1791 · Cited by 88
“Scientific literature on aging reported that it is possible to regain some lost cognitive functions, in particular in elderly subjects with cognitive decline, such as MCI and dementia.(4) Therefore, some authors posited that knowledge of normal and pathological changes in cognition of elderly people is very important…”
BackgroundIs intracranial volume a suitable proxy for brain reserve?
van Loenhoud, A. C., Groot, C., Vogel, J. W., van der Flier, W. M., & Ossenkoppele, R. (2018) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-018-0408-5 · Cited by 93
“Years later, Stern [60] further refined the definition of brain reserve by discerning it from cognitive reserve.”
BackgroundInfluentialDendritic Spines: Mediators of Cognitive Resilience in Aging and Alzheimer’s Disease
Walker, C. K., & Herskowitz, J. H. (2021) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858420945964 · Cited by 86
“Notably, cognitive resilience should not be confused with cognitive reserve, a popular concept which states that each individual’s ability to cope with Alzheimer’s disease pathology depends on how their brains perform tasks, based on preexisting cognitive processing approaches and compensatory mechanisms (Stern 2012).”
BackgroundThe role of mirror mechanism in the recovery, maintenance, and acquisition of motor abilities
Rizzolatti, G., Fabbri‐Destro, M., Nuara, A., Gatti, R., & Avanzini, P. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.04.024 · Cited by 90
Clouston, S., Kotov, R., Pietrzak, R. H., Luft, B. J., Gonzalez, A., Richards, M., Ruggero, C. J., Spiro, A., & Bromet, E. J. (2016) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1016/j.dadm.2016.08.001 · Cited by 85
“The prodromal period is usually characterized by accelerated cognitive aging, which can last a decade [35], and increasing levels of CI in the years before becoming diagnostic for dementia [16].”
BackgroundFrederiksen, K. S., Gjerum, L., Waldemar, G., & Hasselbalch, S. G. (2017) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-170567 · Cited by 86
Boller, B., Mellah, S., Ducharme‐Laliberté, G., & Belleville, S. (2016) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-016-9621-7 · Cited by 96
“Reserve would thus reflect the individual’s own brain ability to cope with diseaserelated or age-related neural changes in order to delay or minimize cognitive manifestations (Stern 2002, 2012).”
BackgroundMapstone, M. E., Lin, F. V., Nalls, M. A., Cheema, A. K., Singleton, A., Fiandaca, M. S., & Federoff, H. J. (2016) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.11.007 · Cited by 82
“These alternate paths may be supported by resistance to age-related accumulation of pathologies (Balasubramanian et al., 2012) or cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012) or enhanced neuroplasticity (Gutchess, 2014).”
BackgroundGenetic risk of dementia mitigated by cognitive reserve: A cohort study
Dekhtyar, S., Marseglia, A., Xu, W., Darin‐Mattsson, A., Wang, H., & Fratiglioni, L. (2019) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.25501 · Cited by 85
“Cognitive reserve has been proposed to account for the mismatch between the extent of brain damage and its clinical manifestation in the form of dementia diagnosis.(1)”
BackgroundLife-Course Religious Attendance and Cognitive Functioning in Later Life
Hill, T. D., Carr, D. C., Burdette, A. M., & Dowd‐Arrow, B. (2020) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027520917059 · Cited by 87
“Recent advances in neuroscience theory and measurement support the malleability of cognitive functioning through lifestyle exposures (Bosworth & Hertzog, 2009; Reuter-Lorenz & Park, 2014; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundAdvancing Alzheimer’s research: a review of big data promises
Zhang, R., Simon, G., & Yu, F. (2017) · International Journal of Medical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2017.07.002 · Cited by 77
“Such buffer, that allows an individual to maintain cognitive function despite AD pathology is called cognitive reserve (71).”
BackgroundEarly secure attachment as a protective factor against later cognitive decline and dementia
Walsh, E., Blake, Y., Donati, A., Stoop, R., & von Gunten, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00161 · Cited by 84
“Initially, the term brain reserve was used to describe inter-individual differences in certain quantitative properties of the brain, which might protect against the clinical manifestations of brain damage or degeneration (Satz, 1993; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAndel, R., Infurna, F. J., Rickenbach, E. H., Crowe, M. G., Marchiondo, L. A., & Fisher, G. G. (2015) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2014-204754 · Cited by 90
Skoog, I. G., Börjesson‐Hanson, A., Kern, S., Johansson, L. H., Falk, H., Sigström, R., & Östling, S. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-05022-8 · Cited by 90
Word-list intrusion errors predict progression to mild cognitive impairment.
Thomas, K. R., Initiative*, T. A. D. N., Eppig, J. S., Edmonds, E. C., Jacobs, D. M., Libon, D. J., Au, R., Salmon, D. P., & Bondi, M. W. (2018) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000413 · Cited by 89
“…uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript performance relative to those with lower education with the same level of neuropsychological performance; therefore, those with higher cognitive reserve would be expected to progress faster (Roe, Xiong, Miller, & Morris, 2007; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundAltered brain activation in complex walking conditions in patients with Parkinson's disease
Maidan, I., Rosenberg‐Katz, K., Jacob, Y., et al. (2016) · Parkinsonism & Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2016.01.025 · Cited by 83
“When activation reaches maximum capacity, function cannot be maintained [28].”
BackgroundShimada, H., Kitamura, S., Shinotoh, H., Endo, H., Niwa, F., Hirano, S., Kimura, Y., Zhang, M., Kuwabara, S., Suhara, T., et al. (2016) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1016/j.dadm.2016.12.009 · Cited by 83
“The concept of cognitive reserve (CR) has been postulated to explain reasons for such influence of education or occupation on the prevalence of dementia and relatively preserved cognitive performance despite their AD-related pathologies [42,43].”
BackgroundTau pathology and cognitive reserve in Alzheimer's disease
Hoenig, M. C., Bischof, G. N., Hammes, J., Faber, J., Fließbach, K., van Eimeren, T., & Drzezga, A. E. (2017) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2017.05.004 · Cited by 84
Cattaneo, G., David Bartrés-faz, A., Morris, T. P., Sánchez, J. S., Macià, D., Tarrero, C., Tormos, J. M., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00321 · Cited by 83
“…health is associated with either the maintenance of brain structure, activity or connectivity patterns with advancing age (Nyberg et al., 2012), and/or with the expression of compensatory responses in the face of pathological changes (Stern, 2012; Elman et al., 2014; Reuter-Lorenz and Park, 2014).”
BackgroundCognitive reserve impacts on disability and cognitive deficits in acute stroke
Umarova, R. M., Sperber, C., Kaller, C. P., Schmidt, C. S. M., Urbach, H., Klöppel, S., Weiller, C., & Karnath, H. (2019) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-019-09442-6 · Cited by 82
Benzodiazepines and Related Drugs as a Risk Factor in Alzheimer's Disease Dementia
Ettcheto, M., Olloquequi, J., Sánchez‐López, E., Busquets, O., Cano, A. C., Manzine, P. R., Beas‐Zárate, C., Castro-Torres, R. D., García, M. L., Bulló, M., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00344 · Cited by 83
“This mechanism would allow resisting longer neurodegenerative pathologies without developing clear cognitive clinical symptoms or memory loss (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundAttention-Diffusion-Bilinear Neural Network for Brain Network Analysis
Huang, J., Zhou, L., Wang, L., & Zhang, D. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging · doi:10.1109/tmi.2020.2973650 · Cited by 80
“In particular, brain network provides a powerful representation of the interaction patterns among brain regions, which gains a lot of attention in investigating the mechanisms of many brain disorders such as epilepsy, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, and Alzheimer’s disease [2]–[4].”
BackgroundA strong dependency between changes in fluid and crystallized abilities in human cognitive aging
Tucker–Drob, E. M., de la Fuente, J., Köhncke, Y., Brandmaier, A. M., Nyberg, L. H., & Lindenberger, U. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abj2422 · Cited by 95
Deficits in Social Cognition: An Unveiled Signature of Multiple Sclerosis
Chalah, M. A., & Ayache, S. S. (2017) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617716001156 · Cited by 86
“” Cognitive reserve is thought to be a moderator between the amount of brain damage and the extent of clinical outcome (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundWang, X.-J., Xu, W., Li, J., Cao, X., Tan, L., & Yu, J. (2019) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-180856 · Cited by 93
Merlo, S., Spampinato, S. F., & Sortino, M. A. (2018) · CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/cns.13050 · Cited by 82
Statistical Disease Progression Modeling in Alzheimer Disease
Rakêt, L. L., & Initiative, F. T. A. D. N. (2020) · Frontiers in Big Data · doi:10.3389/fdata.2020.00024 · Cited by 78
“…and interpretation around the cognitive reserve model are somewhat Frontiers in Big Data | www.frontiersin.org 13 August 2020 | Volume 3 | Article 24 more sophisticated, but still largely centered on an assumption of a linear rate of decline (e.g., illustrated in Figure 1 in Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundEffects of education on aging-related cortical thinning among cognitively normal individuals
Kim, J. P., Seo, S. W., Shin, H. Y., Ye, B. S., Yang, J.-J., Kim, C., Kang, M., Jeon, S., Kim, H. J., Cho, H., et al. (2015) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000001884 · Cited by 83
“Alternatively, education might increase the brain reserve by increasing the number of neurons and synapses(4) or by creating a cognitive reserve that allows the brain to cope with age-related diseases, using preexisting cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory approaches regardless of brain size.(5) More educatio…”
BackgroundLin, F. V., Ren, P., Lo, R. Y., Chapman, B. P., Jacobs, A., Baran, T. M., Porsteinsson, A. P., Foxe, J. J., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2016) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-160715 · Cited by 76
“For example, higher cognitive reserve, indexed by higher levels of education, or activity engagement, helps protect cognitive performance against AD pathology [7, 8].”
Penninkilampi, R., & Eslick, G. D. (2018) · CNS Drugs · doi:10.1007/s40263-018-0535-3 · Cited by 80
“Cognitive reserve refers to the mechanism by which differences in cognitive function are observed in individuals with identical levels of neuropathology, in the context of neurodegenerative disease [50, 51].”
BackgroundBrain Entropy Mapping in Healthy Aging and Alzheimer’s Disease
Wang, Z., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2020) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2020.596122 · Cited by 78
“However, in AD, our model predicts a detrimental large BEN reduction in DMN/ECN, indicating a failure of the functional compensation role of brain reserve in AD (Stern, 2006, 2012; Stern et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMethodResultWhen your brain looks older than expected: combined lifestyle risk and BrainAGE
Bittner, N., Jockwitz, C., Franke, K., Gaser, C., Moebus, S., Bayen, U. J., Amunts, K., & Caspers, S. (2021) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-020-02184-6 · Cited by 84
“The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Essen (Germany) and all participants gave written informed consent in agreement with the Declaration of Helsinki.”
BackgroundInfluentialKimura, N., Aso, Y., Yabuuchi, K., Ishibashi, M., Hori, D., Sasaki, Y., Nakamichi, A., Uesugi, S., Fujioka, H., Iwao, S., et al. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2019.00401 · Cited by 83
“The mechanisms underlying social activity and cognition support the cognitive-reserve hypothesis, which suggests that participation in intellectual, social and physical activities stimulates brain function, resulting in the prevention of dementia (46).”
BackgroundMeaning in life: resilience beyond reserve
Bartrés‐Faz, D., Cattaneo, G., Sánchez, J. S., Tormos, J. M., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2018) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-018-0381-z · Cited by 90
“Largely influenced by the ‘cognitive reserve’ (CR) theory [73, 74], research on factors accounting for interindividual differences in cognitive and brain function in older populations has been dominated by the study of the roles of education, occupation, and social and leisure activities [56].”
BackgroundYeung, C. M., John, P. D. S., Menec, V. H., & Tyas, S. L. (2014) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0000000000000019 · Cited by 82
Raj, R., Kaprio, J. A., Korja, M., Mikkonen, E. D., Jousilahti, P., & Siironen, J. O. (2017) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002316 · Cited by 82
The effects of education on cognition in older age: Evidence from genotyped Siblings
Fletcher, J. M., Topping, M., Zheng, F., & Lu, Q. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114044 · Cited by 86
Franzmeier, N., Büerger, K., Teipel, S. J., Stern, Y., Dichgans, M., & Ewers, M. (2016) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.11.013 · Cited by 80
“Several previous studies have investigated the effect of CR on brain connectivity or task-related brain activation (Arenaza-Urquijo et al., 2013; Bosch et al., 2010; Marques et al., 2016; Stern et al., 2008) [for a review see (Arenaza-Urquijo et al., 2015; Stern, 2012)].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationThe impact of retirement on age related cognitive decline - a systematic review
Meng, A., Nexø, M. A., & Borg, V. (2017) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-017-0556-7 · Cited by 77
“2) Cognitive reserve reflects the extent to which an individual uses neural networks or cognitive paradigms efficiently and flexibly rather than anatomic differences [5, 6].”
BackgroundInfluentialCognitive reserve and cortical thickness in preclinical Alzheimer’s disease
Pettigrew, C. A., Soldan, A., Zhu, Y., Wang, M., Brown, T., Miller, M. I., & Albert, M. (2016) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-016-9581-y · Cited by 86
“As described by Stern (2006, 2012), cognitive reserve (CR) is a theoretical concept proposing that individual differences in lifetime experiences, such as educational and occupational attainment, leisure activities, and literacy, increase the flexibility, efficiency and capacity of brain networks,…”
BackgroundRobitaille, A., van den Hout, A., Machado, R. J. M., Bennett, D. A., Čukić, I., Deary, I. J., Hofer, S. M., Hoogendijk, E. O., Huisman, M., Johansson, B., et al. (2018) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2017.10.003 · Cited by 77
“Thus, cognitive reserve appears to delay the onset of dementia, but once a critical threshold is reached, the progression of dementia in terms of effects on cognitive decline is more rapid which in turn leads to fewer years before death [19].”
BackgroundLi, M., Peng, M. Y., Nazar, R., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Energy Research · doi:10.3389/fenrg.2022.832189 · Cited by 77
“Stern (2012) found the lower values of estimations for three countries: Zimbabwe, Tanzania, and Ghana.”
BackgroundRetractedThe neurocognitive correlates of brain entropy estimated by resting state fMRI
Wang, Z. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117893 · Cited by 77
“he correlations between resting BEN and ion and educat fluid intelligence that are associated with general functional capability and in. telligence Education is a major indicator of cognitive reserve [38], a concept used to explain the individual difference of brain resilience to neuropathology in Alzheimer’s Disease.…”
BackgroundLate-life Cognitive Activity and Dementia: A Systematic Review and Bias Analysis
Sajeev, G., Weuve, J., Jackson, J. W., VanderWeele, T. J., Bennett, D. A., Grodstein, F., & Blacker, D. (2016) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000000513 · Cited by 76
“7 it can be shown that the degree of confounding by U is a function of (1) the HR reflecting the association of U with AD, HRU-AD, conditional on exposure and measured covariates; (2) the prevalence of U in the high-activity group, p1, conditional on measured covariates; and (3) the prevalence of U in the low-activity…”
BackgroundCortical atrophy accelerates as cognitive decline worsens in multiple sclerosis
Eijlers, A. J. C., Dekker, I., Steenwijk, M. D., Meijer, K. A., Hulst, H. E., Pouwels, P. J. W., Uitdehaag, B. M. J., Barkhof, F., Vrenken, H., Schoonheim, M. M., et al. (2019) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000008198 · Cited by 76
“Previous research in both MS as well as other neurodegenerative diseases has shown that the amount of structural pathology necessary to initiate cognitive decline is, on average, higher in more highly educated and intellectually enriched individuals.(44,45) This higher cognitive reserve(45) is thought to reflect cogni…”
BackgroundA neuroimaging approach to capture cognitive reserve: Application to Alzheimer's disease
van Loenhoud, A. C., Wink, A. M., Groot, C., Verfaillie, S. C. J., Twisk, J. W. R., Barkhof, F., van Berckel, B. N. M., Scheltens, P., van der Flier, W. M., & Ossenkoppele, R. (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23695 · Cited by 79
“This is a critical feature, considering that the ability to maintain cognitive function gradually becomes depleted as severity of neuropathology increases [Stern, 2012].”
BackgroundBurden and Predictors of Poststroke Cognitive Impairment in a Sample of Ghanaian Stroke Survivors
Sarfo, F. S., Akassi, J., Adamu, S., Obese, V., & Ovbiagele, B. (2017) · Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2017.05.041 · Cited by 79
Kosmidis, M. H., Vlachos, G. S., Anastasiou, C. A., Yannakoulia, M., Dardiotis, E., Hadjigeorgiou, G. M., Sakka, P., Ntanasi, E., & Scarmeas, N. (2018) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0000000000000249 · Cited by 78
Power, R., Coen, R. F., Beatty, S., Mulcahy, R., Moran, R., Stack, J., Howard, A. N., & Nolan, J. M. (2018) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-170713 · Cited by 76
“, the cognitive reserve hypothesis [80],”
Relationship between education, leisure activities, and cognitive functions in older adults
Park, S., Choi, B., Choi, C.-H., Kang, J. M., & Lee, J. (2018) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1512083 · Cited by 79
“actively copes with brain damage, caused by aging or disease, by recruiting pre-existing brain networks of compensatory alternative cognitive processing (Scarmeas & Stern, 2003; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundMoscoso, A., Silva‐Rodríguez, J., Aldrey, J. M., Cortés, J., Fernández‐Ferreiro, A., Gómez‐Lado, N., Ruibal, Á., & Aguiar, P. (2019) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101837 · Cited by 74
“Among the possible factors, it is likely that cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012) drives most of the variance in conversion times and, thus, comparing clinical symptoms with the expected clinical symptoms for the observed atrophy might help to better predict progression.”
BackgroundData-driven neuropathological staging and subtyping of TDP-43 proteinopathies
Young, A. L., Vogel, J. W., Robinson, J. L., McMillan, C. T., Ossenkoppele, R., Wolk, D. A., Irwin, D. J., Elman, L. B., Grossman, M., Lee, V. M. ‐., et al. (2023) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awad145 · Cited by 84
“44 We identified a single progression pattern for LATE-NC, suggesting that the pattern of TDP-43 progression in LATE-NC is relatively stereotypical, or at least spread around a single major mode.”
Zhou, Y., Yu, F. F., Duong, T. Q., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2013) · Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1002/jmri.24550 · Cited by 76
“…neurological deficits detected by cognitive neuroimaging results might present in a different time frame from the manifestations of mild cognitive functional symptoms, possibly due to cognitive reserves against brain pathology or age-related changes (37), as suggested by PET-FDG results (30).”
Franzmeier, N., Hartmann, J., Taylor, A. N. W., Caballero, M. Á. A., Lee, S.-V., Buerger, K., Kambeitz-Ilankovic, L., Ertl-Wagner, B., Mueller, C., Catak, C., et al. (2017) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-170360 · Cited by 69
“generation in late life, an effect also called cognitive 61 reserve [14].”
BackgroundVerdelho, A., Wardlaw, J. M., Pavlovic, A. M., Pantoni, L., Godefroy, O., Duering, M., Charidimou, A., Chabriat, H., & Biessels, G. J. (2021) · European Stroke Journal · doi:10.1177/23969873211000258 · Cited by 77
“This concept addresses the phenomenon that the same level of brain pathology leads to different levels of CI depending on the premorbid condition of the brain and presumably its ability to actively compensate for the damage.(56) Or.”
BackgroundKremen, W. S., Elman, J. A., Panizzon, M. S., Eglit, G. M. L., Sanderson‐Cimino, M. E., Williams, M. E., Lyons, M. J., & Franz, C. E. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.834765 · Cited by 80
“Stern’s work in this area has yielded very useful and highly influential constructs in aging and dementia research (Stern, 2012; Stern et al., 2020).”
BackgroundThe Protective Role of Cognitive Reserve in Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review
Corbo, I., Marselli, G., Ciero, V. D., & Casagrande, M. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm12051759 · Cited by 86
“Such structural features would play a protective role in cognitive decline in healthy and pathological aging [5,6].”
BackgroundAging-associated sensory decline and Alzheimer’s disease
Hong, S., Baek, S.-H., Lai, M. K. P., Arumugam, T. V., & Jo, D.-G. (2024) · Molecular Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/s13024-024-00776-y · Cited by 76
Disability Trajectories Before and After Stroke and Myocardial Infarction
Dhamoon, M. S., Longstreth, W. T., Bartz, T. M., Kaplan, R. C., & Elkind, M. S. V. (2017) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2017.2802 · Cited by 74
The left frontal cortex supports reserve in aging by enhancing functional network efficiency
Franzmeier, N., Hartmann, J., Taylor, A. N. W., Caballero, M. Á. A., Simon‐Vermot, L., Kambeitz‐Ilankovic, L., Bürger, K., Catak, C., Janowitz, D., Müller, C., et al. (2018) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-018-0358-y · Cited by 76
“tively challenging activities [2, 3], such as higher IQ or greater education [4, 5].”
BackgroundSocioeconomic position in childhood and cognitive aging in Europe
Čermáková, P., Formánek, T., Kågström, A., & Winkler, P. (2018) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000006390 · Cited by 73
“Second, childhood SEP may form a foundation for an active cognitive reserve of the brain, which would enable the use of preexisting processes or compensatory mechanisms in coping with brain pathology.(9) The second mechanism thus suggests that socioeconomic hardship in childhood would be associated with a higher rate…”
BackgroundResilience as a translational endpoint in the treatment of PTSD
Rakesh, G., Morey, R. A., Zannas, A. S., Malik, Z. A., Marx, C. E., Clausen, A. N., Kritzer, M. D., & Szabo, S. T. (2019) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-019-0383-7 · Cited by 77
Influence of cognitive reserve in schizophrenia: A systematic review
Herrero, P., Contador, I., Stern, Y., Fernández‐Calvo, B., Sánchez, A., & Ramos, F. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.10.019 · Cited by 77
“It is well known that occupational experiences impart reserve against the expression of Alzheimer's pathology (Stern, 2012; Valenzuela and Sachdev, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationTurrini, S., Wong, B., Eldaief, M. C., Press, D. Z., Sinclair, D. A., Koch, G., Avenanti, A., & Santarnecchi, E. (2023) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2023.101939 · Cited by 88
“While brain reserve is a passive protective factor, based on the sheer amount of expendable substrate, CR is conceptualized as the brain ’ s active coping in response to damage, through compensatory or pre-existing cognitive processing (Stern, 2013).”
BackgroundEarly neuropsychological detection of Alzheimer's disease
Bastin, C., & Salmon, E. (2014) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2014.176 · Cited by 72
Yang, Z., Slavin, M. J., & Sachdev, P. S. (2013) · Nature Reviews Neurology · doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2013.105 · Cited by 74
Marden, J. R., Mayeda, E. R., Walter, S., Vivot, A., Tchetgen, E. J. T., Kawachi, I. I., & Glymour, M. M. (2016) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0000000000000137 · Cited by 73
Neuritic and Diffuse Plaque Associations with Memory in Non-Cognitively Impaired Elderly
Malek-Ahmadi, M., Perez, S. E., Chen, K., & Mufson, E. J. (2016) · Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-160365 · Cited by 73
“On the other hand, cognitive reserve involves the recruitment of other brain areas not severely affected by the disease process to aid in task performance [68].”
Olaya, B., Bobák, M., Haro, J. M., & Demakakos, P. (2017) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.14789 · Cited by 71
“Education might have positive and profound effects on brain structures during the early stages of life(33), contributing to greater cognitive reserve.(26,34) Cognitive reserve might help the brain to compensate for neuropathology and delay the onset of clinical symptoms.”
BackgroundMRI-assessed atrophy subtypes in Alzheimer’s disease and the cognitive reserve hypothesis
Persson, K., Eldholm, R. S., Barca, M. L., Cavallin, L., Ferreira, D., Knapskog, A., Selbæk, G., Brækhus, A., Saltvedt, I. T., Westman, E., et al. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0186595 · Cited by 73
Genome‐wide association study of Alzheimer's disease endophenotypes at prediagnosis stages
Chung, J., Wang, X., Maruyama, T., Ma, Y., Zhang, X., Mez, J., Sherva, R., Takeyama, H., Initiative, T. A. D. N., Lunetta, K. L., et al. (2018) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2017.11.006 · Cited by 67
“[46].”
Gates, N. J., Rutjes, A. W., Nisio, M. D., Karim, S., Chong, L., March, E. G., Martínez, G., & Vernooij, R. W. M. (2019) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd012277.pub2 · Cited by 88
“Epidemiological evidence indicates that the risk of developing dementia due to Alzheimer's disease is significantly reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment (Marioni 2012; Marquine 2012; Stern 2012).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMatyas, N., Aschenberger, F. K., Wagner, G., Teufer, B., Auer, S., Gisinger, C., Kil, M., Klerings, I., & Gartlehner, G. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-027719 · Cited by 78
Costumero, V., Marín-Marín, L., Calabria, M., Belloch, V., Escudero, J. V., Baquero, M., Hernández, M., de Miras, J. R., Costa, A., Parcet, M. A., et al. (2020) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-020-0581-1 · Cited by 74
“Neural compensation appears when cognitive function is maintained in the presence of brain atrophy due to better utilization of alternative networks [9, 19, 23].”
BackgroundLeisure activity participation and risk of dementia: An 18-year follow-up of the Whitehall II Study
Sommerlad, A., Sabia, S., Livingston, G., Kivimäki, M., Lewis, G., & Singh-Manoux, A. (2020) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000010966 · Cited by 72
A microRNA signature that correlates with cognition and is a target against cognitive decline
Islam, M. R., Kaurani, L., Berulava, T., Heilbronner, U., Budde, M., Centeno, T. P., Elerdashvili, V., Zafieriou, M., Benito, E., Sertel, S. M., et al. (2021) · EMBO Molecular Medicine · doi:10.15252/emmm.202013659 · Cited by 74
“However, changes in cognitive function develop slowly over time and while some individuals develop pathological memory impairment, others exhibit preserved cognitive function until old age, a phenomenon that has been referred to as cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundRentz, D. M., Mormino, E. C., Papp, K. V., Betensky, R. A., Sperling, R. A., & Johnson, K. A. (2016) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-016-9640-4 · Cited by 74
“One important factor is the concept of Bcognitive reserve^ (CR), which attempts to explain how some individuals are able to maintain normal cognitive performance despite pathological disease burden (Katzman 1993; Stern 2012), thus delaying or reducing the risk of developing symptomatic AD (Bennett et al.”
BackgroundNeuroplasticity across the lifespan and aging effects in bilinguals and monolinguals
Maschio, N. D., Sulpizio, S., Gallo, F., Fedeli, D., Weekes, B., & Abutalebi, J. (2018) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2018.06.007 · Cited by 72
“T have been identified as effective measures of neural reserve and associated with the risk, incidence and severity of dementing disorders (e.g. Mori et al., 1997; Satz, 1993; Stern, 2012).”
Fliss, R., Gall, D. L., Etcharry‐Bouyx, F., Chauviré, V., Desgranges, B., & Allain, P. (2015) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2015.1101014 · Cited by 71
“…principle of cognitive reserve (individual differences to tolerate, over at least, brain changes and still maintain functional cognitive performance, Stern, 2012), premorbid cognitive level, as well as global resources, can act as moderators between pathological lesions in AD and social outcome.”
BackgroundOverview of Neurocognitive Disorders
McDonald, W. M. (2017) · FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.20160030 · Cited by 82
Bittner, N., Jockwitz, C., Mühleisen, T. W., Hoffstaedter, F., Eickhoff, S. B., Moebus, S., Bayen, U. J., Cichon, S., Zilles, K., Amunts, K., et al. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-08500-x · Cited by 70
Cognitive Function and Digital Device Use in Older Adults Attending a Memory Clinic
Wu, Y.-H., Lewis, M., & Rigaud, A. (2019) · Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1177/2333721419844886 · Cited by 73
“Therefore, learning to use digital technology might increase cognitive and brain reserve, which protects individuals from cognitive decline (Stern, 2012; Valenzuela, Sachdev, Wen, Chen, & Brodaty, 2008).”
BackgroundCommunity engagement and dementia risk: time-to-event analyses from a national cohort study
Fancourt, D. E., Steptoe, A., & Cadar, D. (2019) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2019-213029 · Cited by 81
Older age at retirement is associated with decreased risk of dementia
Dufouil, C., Pereira, E., Chêne, G., Glymour, M., Alpérovitch, A., Saubusse, E., Risse-Fleury, M., Heuls, B., Salord, J., Brieu, M., et al. (2014) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-014-9906-3 · Cited by 61
“The finding of cognitive benefits of work is consistent with the ‘‘use it or lose it’’ concept as well as with the cognitive reserve hypothesis, according to which complex mental activity protects against the clinical consequences of brain insults due to dementing process [26, 27].”
ResultEstimated GFR, Albuminuria, and Cognitive Performance: The Maastricht Study
Martens, R. J. H., Kooman, J. P., Stehouwer, C. D. A., Dagnelie, P. C., Kallen, C., Koster, A., Kroon, A. A., Leunissen, K. M. L., Nijpels, G., SANDE, F. M. V. D., et al. (2016) · American Journal of Kidney Diseases · doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2016.04.017 · Cited by 72
“This is important because it can be hypothesized that in middle-aged individuals, brain reserve capacity (ie, “the amount of damage that can be sustained before reaching a threshold for clinical expression”) is higher, as a result of which changes in cognitive performance are subtle.(27,28) In addition, some studies m…”
BackgroundHealthy cognitive ageing in the Lothian Birth Cohort studies: marginal gains not magic bullet
Corley, J., Cox, S. R., & Deary, I. J. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291717001489 · Cited by 71
“However, genetic influences can be modified by physiological and environmental influences, and these may play a larger role in the expression of cognitive impairments (Mortimer et al. 2005; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundNetwork connectivity correlates of variability in fluid intelligence performance
Santarnecchi, E., Emmendorfer, A. K., Tadayon, S., Rossi, S., Rossi, A., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2017) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2017.10.002 · Cited by 70
Molecular and cellular aspects of age-related cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease
Hullinger, R., & Puglielli, L. (2017) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2016.05.008 · Cited by 68
“increased cognitive flexibility, perhaps via similar mechanisms as those observed in animals [270, 271].”
Cognitive Reserve as an Emerging Concept in Stroke Recovery
Rosenich, E., Hordacre, B. G., Paquet, C., Koblar, S. A., & Hillier, S. (2020) · Neurorehabilitation and neural repair · doi:10.1177/1545968320907071 · Cited by 71
Which Psychosocial Factors Best Predict Cognitive Performance in Older Adults?
Zahodne, L. B., Nowinski, C. J., Gershon, R. C., & Manly, J. J. (2014) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617714000186 · Cited by 77
“Emotional support may contribute to cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Stern, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stern, Yaakov
- ORCID
- Stern, Yaakov
- Venue
- The Lancet Neurology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1006-1012
- ISSN
- 1474-4422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3507991
- OpenAlex
- W2144907160
- Cited by
- 3,557
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 412 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 311 · 2023: 343 · 2022: 281 · 2021: 303 · 2020: 350 · 2019: 292 · 2018: 244 · 2017: 213 · 2016: 176 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 93 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- The Lancet Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026158, R01AG014671)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, brain reserve, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive aging, dementia risk, educational attainment, occupational attainment, leisure
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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