The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 54 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Open accessAbstract
The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that cognitive reserve explains why people differ in how much Alzheimer’s disease pathology or age-related brain change they can tolerate while still functioning. It synthesizes epidemiologic, neuroimaging, postmortem, and intervention evidence, and concludes that reserve is modifiable but that causal interventions remain unproven.
Key findings
- Reserve is split into brain reserve, a more passive quantitative tolerance tied to brain size or neurons/synapses, and cognitive reserve, an active functional process in which pre-existing or compensatory networks help cope with damage.
- Epidemiologic studies cited found that fewer than 8 years of education carried 2.2 times higher dementia risk, low occupational attainment carried 2.25 times higher risk, and greater leisure activity was linked to 38% lower risk; a review of 22 cohort studies estimated higher reserve reduced dementia risk by 46%.
- After Alzheimer’s disease becomes clinically apparent, higher reserve is associated with faster decline: memory scores fell about one point yearly on average, with an additional point yearly in those with higher education or occupation.
- Imaging and autopsy evidence indicated that at matched clinical severity, higher education was linked to greater parietotemporal blood-flow deficit and, in 130 elders, each additional year of education reduced the pathology–cognition association by 0.088 standard units; fMRI work distinguished neural reserve from neural compensation.
Methods
- Narrative review by the author, integrating his group’s and others’ epidemiologic cohort studies, functional and resting neuroimaging studies, postmortem analyses, and cognitive or exercise intervention trials.
- Cited samples include 593 non-demented adults aged 60 or older followed for 4 years, 130 elders who had cognitive evaluation before autopsy, and a preliminary 90-person older-adult Space Fortress training study.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis rather than a new primary study or formal meta-analysis; it draws on a cited systematic review of 22 cohort studies for one pooled estimate.
Limitations
- Stated: epidemiologic evidence is correlational and cannot establish causation; controlled intervention studies are needed, and no study to date has shown changes in the key endpoints of slowed cognitive decline or reduced Alzheimer’s disease risk.
- Stated: clinical use of biomarkers and imaging for reserve is premature because prognostic implications are not fully established, and cognitive training evidence is mixed.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without formal risk-of-bias assessment, many findings come from the author’s own research program, and the interaction between brain reserve and cognitive reserve remains unresolved.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
39 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 No basis given · 10 Supported · 10 Own result · 8 Partly supported · 5 Supported so far · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This idea is supported by a set of studies that suggest that prevalence or incidence of dementia is lower in individuals with larger brains13, 14.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Katzman, 1988, Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques, Ann Neurol source
- Supportedcites [14] Schofield, 1997, An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging, Neurology source
The Discussion (p. 5) reports that smaller head circumference was associated with higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. The paper uses head circumference as an index of premorbid brain size (p. 1), so its finding supports the citing sentence’s hedged association. This study measured prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, not incidence of dementia generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, compared to individuals with lower CR, those with higher CR performed better even when they use the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [42] Steffener, 2011, Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve, Brain Imaging Behav source
The Results (Model C) report that, in older adults, higher cognitive reserve reduced the negative effect of network 2 expression on task performance. The Discussion likewise says older adults with greater reserve maintained performance better as network 2 expression increased. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those who engaged in more leisure activities had 38% less risk of developing dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [24] Scarmeas, 2001, Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Neurology source
The Discussion explicitly states that subjects with high leisure activity had 38% less risk of developing dementia. The Results report a relative risk of 0.62 (95% CI 0.46–0.83), consistent with that figure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The rate of decline is more rapid in individuals with high reserve than those with low reserve, even when accounting for a multitude of other factors that may contribute to disease course27, 28, 46.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [27] Stern, 1999, Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve?, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The DOI was not indexed for paper-scoped Semantic Scholar search, so the cited paper’s full text could not be checked directly. A systematic review, “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis” (search score 0.789), explicitly attributes more rapid memory decline in Alzheimer’s patients with higher education and occupational attainment to Stern et al. (1999). This supports the central claim, though the retrieved passage does not verify which other factors the original analysis accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
No paper-scoped Semantic Scholar snippets were available for Scarmeas et al. (2006). However, “Higher education affects accelerated cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease” explicitly cites Scarmeas et al. (2006) among studies finding more rapid cognitive decline after Alzheimer’s onset in patients with higher education (snippet score 0.534). This supports the claim through a secondary citation, although the available evidence does not independently verify which other factors Scarmeas et al. adjusted for. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Supportedcites [46] Hall, 2007, Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Hall’s (2007) title establishes the finding of delayed accelerated memory decline in people who develop dementia. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Episodic memory performance in a multi-ethnic longitudinal study of 13,037 elderly” describes the same pattern: education is associated with a delayed change point followed by faster decline (score 0.52). Hall’s full text was unavailable in the paper-scoped search, so the specific assertion about accounting for other factors could not be checked directly; the available evidence supports the core paraphrase, not every qualification. (LLM, conf=0.72)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In a young group of subjects we identified an activation network that was expressed during the stimulus presentation phase of both tasks and whose increase in expression with increasing load correlated with CR.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Stern, 2008, A common neural network for cognitive reserve in verbal and object working memory in young but not old, Cereb Cortex source
The Discussion identifies a pattern in young subjects during stimulus presentation whose load-related activation had a similar relationship with cognitive reserve in both the letter and shape tasks. The Canonical Variates Analysis reports significant expression of that pattern in both tasks and relates its load-related expression to cognitive-reserve scores. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Similar analysis demonstrated a comparable protective effect of occupational attainment33 and leisure activities34.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Stern, 1995, Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [34] Scarmeas, 2003, Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Arch Neurol source
The cited paper’s Results report an inverse association between activity scores and cerebral blood flow after controlling for clinical severity, which the authors interpret as consistent with cognitive reserve. The Conclusions describe analogous findings for occupational attainment and note evidence linking leisure activities to reduced dementia risk. The citation supports the leisure-activities part of the sentence; occupational attainment has a separate citation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, at a given level of clinical severity, AD patients with higher education have a more severe pattern of AD-related changes on PET scan than those with lower education44, 45.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Garibotto, 2008, Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [45] Kemppainen, 2008, Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Abstract reports that high- and low-educated patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease had the same degree of cognitive deterioration, while the high-educated group showed greater amyloid-tracer uptake and lower glucose metabolism on PET. The Discussion likewise describes more pronounced amyloid accumulation and neuronal dysfunction in the high-educated group. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In AD patients matched for clinical severity, we found an inverse relationship between resting rCBF and years of education32.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Stern, 1992, Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Procedures (p. 2) state that rCBF was measured under resting conditions. The Results (pp. 2–3) report greater parietotemporal flow reductions with more education in AD groups that did not differ on clinical measures; the relationship at the P3 detector remained significant after controlling for dementia severity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The neural implementation of CR might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation16, 38.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
In “Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR,” Stern explicitly says that the neural implementation of cognitive reserve might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation. The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section also describes them as two proposed components. (LLM, conf=0.95)
- Supportedcites [38] Stern, 2005, Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults, Cereb Cortex source
The Introduction (p. 1) explicitly proposes two complementary facets of the neural implementation of cognitive reserve: neural reserve and neural compensation. The paper then defines and contrasts them in the Introduction (pp. 1–2). (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These observations using cerebral blood flow have been replicated by other groups as well35, 36.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Alexander, 1997, Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Am J Psychiatry source
- Supportedcites [36] Perneczky, 2006, Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry source
The Results report an inverse association between schooling and glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. The Discussion says these findings are supported by other groups’ cerebral-blood-flow studies, while noting that the results do not match exactly because of differences in samples and methods. This paper used FDG-PET rather than measuring cerebral blood flow itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, the concept of CR suggests that the brain actively attempts to cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches15, 16.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Stern, 2002, What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section states that active models such as CR propose that the brain copes with damage using pre-existing cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory processes. This directly supports the paraphrase; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We replicated this observation in patients with incident AD28 and also found more rapid decline in cognitive function in AD patients who engaged in more leisure activities prior to dementia onset29.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Supportedcites [29] Helzner, 2007, Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Using a covariance method to analyze the imaging data, we identified a spatial pattern of fMRI activation that was expressed by both groups and whose expression increased as the task became more difficult.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] Stern, 2012, Task difficulty modulates young-old differences in network expression, Brain Res source
The Functional imaging section identifies a spatial pattern common to young and old participants. The Discussion states that its expression increased logarithmically with task difficulty. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In a follow-up analysis41, we found that atrophy in a key area within the first network (i.e. the one that was used by both young and old) was associated with decreased efficiency in that network and increased utilization of the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [41] Steffener, 2009, The impact of age-related changes on working memory functional activity, Brain Imaging Behav sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Conclusion report that lower grey-matter volume in a region of the primary network was associated with greater secondary-network recruitment. The Discussion interprets this as compensation for an affected primary network, but the Results report no significant association between regional grey-matter volume and primary-network expression; decreased efficiency of that network was not demonstrated. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, Basak et al.50 had elders play a complex role-playing game,”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol Aging sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method > Participants section says older adults were assigned to play Rise of Nations, and the General Discussion reports transfer benefits after 23.5 hours of training. The paper identifies Rise of Nations as a complex real-time strategy game, not a role-playing game. Its Abstract reports improvement on a subset of cognitive tasks, rather than across the entire battery (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In research with young adults, one particular training approach produced excellent improvement in gameplay, but, more importantly, also showed transfer of training to other tasks.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Gopher, 1994, Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight, Hum Factors source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] Gopher, 1989, Practice under changing priorities: an approach to the training of complex skills, Acta Psychol source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Blumen, 2010, Training cognitive control in older adults with the space fortress game: the role of training instructions and basic motor ability, Front Aging Neurosci sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (‘The space fortress game and emphasis change instructions’; page unavailable) reports that emphasis-change instructions improved Space Fortress performance in younger adults compared with standard instructions. It says those instructions *may* be important for transfer, but does not report that this approach demonstrated transfer to other tasks. The General Discussion (page unavailable) says future studies will determine whether such transfer occurs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who rely more on this alternate network can still perform the task, but do so more poorly.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the average scores on a memory test decline by about one point yearly, but in those with higher educational or occupational attainment scores decline by an additional point each year.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first network was used by both young and old subjects, and consisted of areas often associated with working memory.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the second network was primarily characterized by activation in parahippocampal areas and was used consistently only by the older subjects.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these networks is a group of brain areas that seem to work together as the task is harder.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these assumptions, individuals with higher CR will begin their cognitive decline when pathology is more advanced and thus have less time until they reach the point where pathology overwhelms function.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, while in some ways interdependent, brain reserve and CR make independent in addition to synergistic contributions to understanding individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the cognitive or neural mechanism that underlies this reserve is unknown.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, clinicians must be aware that in the presence of pathology there should still be a period of time during which even the most sensitive measures would fail to detect cognitive change.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals with high reserve, by definition, will not demonstrate disease-related clinical symptoms as early as individuals with low levels of reserve.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since people with greater reserve should be able to tolerate more AD pathology, the onset of clinical dementia should be delayed.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirectn = 593- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is possible that individuals with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have more resilience in the face of age- or disease-related changes.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only controlled studies can truly establish that some set of interventions or experiences are beneficial.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In schizophrenia, small effects of cognitive remediation were noted, particularly in stable patients and when combined with adjunctive rehabilitation52.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the original observations concern easily measurable variables like education or occupational attainment, more recent studies have delved more deeply into lifestyle factors, cognitively stimulating behaviors, personality factors and the like.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“However, the exact”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings support the possibility that it may be possible to intervene even later in life in order to impart reserve, slow age-related cognitive decline, and prolonged healthy aging.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is a hopeful idea, since it suggests that changes in lifestyle even later in life might impart reserve against age-related cognitive decline or dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Similarly, focused training has improved working memory capacity and shown transfer of training to nontrained working memory tasks51.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies using these endpoints will be very expensive because they will require a large number of participants and will have to be conducted over several years.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While epidemiologic studies can only describe correlations and do not directly test causation, they are useful for deriving hypotheses and exploring ideas.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By shifting emphasis from game to game, participants cannot fall into a fixed strategy. They must develop the ability to deal with the entire task as a whole – skills that might be termed attentional allocation or executive control.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of cognitive reserve, and pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease.
“The assumption is that disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of CR, and that the pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed AD.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
“However, we reasoned that there is common point in all people where the pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No study to date has shown change in slowed rate of cognitive decline in aging or reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“No study to date has shown change in either of these endpoints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology.
“Since the brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to this resilience.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Researchers have long reported that people with more years of formal education are at lower risk for Alzheimer's and other dementias than those with fewer years of formal education.80,[144][145][146][147][148][149]”
From 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2023) · cites this paper as [146]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This concept was theoretically framed by Park and Bischof (2013) as “scaffolding,” similar to the closely related cognitive reserve theory proposed by Stern (2012).”
In the citing paper
“supporting the theory that a greater cognitive reserve could help protect against development of LOAD117.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“The level of education, a surrogate marker of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2012), is an important determinant of the expression of VCI, such that for a given level of neuropathology higher education is associated with less cognitive deficits (Zieren et al., 2013).”
From The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia (2013) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“These findings lead to the suggestion that higher social engagement and support experienced both before and during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic might have had a protective/mitigating role by contributing to cognitive (51) and affective reserve (52).”
From The impact of COVID-19 infection and enforced prolonged social isolation on neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with and without dementia: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that individuals differ in their level of resilience against brain pathology and hence may exhibit differences in cognitive function despite equivalent levels of pathology (Stern, 2002(Stern, , 2012)).”
From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“The theory suggests that individuals differ in their degree of resilience against age-related brain pathology and hence may show differences in cognitive function in relation to an equivalent level of pathology [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve is a theoretical concept that may account for the role of social isolation and its association with cognitive outcomes in later life.”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Such individuals are likely to receive less cognitive stimulation through social contact, resulting in lower cognitive reserve and hence poorer cognitive function [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
Citations
Cites
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Neurodevelopmental origins of lifespan changes in brain and cognition
Walhovd, K. B., Krogsrud, S. K., Amlien, I. K., Bartsch, H., Bjørnerud, A., Due‐Tønnessen, P., Grydeland, H., Hagler, D. J., Haberg, A. K., Kremen, W. S., et al. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1524259113 · Cited by 205
“Studies of select age groups over restricted time ranges have focused on changing neural foundations of cognition with age, both in childhood and in older adults (3, 4).”
BackgroundSynaptic Plasticity Shapes Brain Connectivity: Implications for Network Topology
Bassi, M. S., Iezzi, E., Gilio, L., Centonze, D., & Buttari, F. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20246193 · Cited by 225
Seblova, D., Berggren, R., & Lövdén, M. (2020) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2019.101005 · Cited by 215
Cross-Cultural Applicability of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): A Systematic Review
O’Driscoll, C., & Shaikh, M. (2017) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-161042 · Cited by 217
Weuve, J., Bennett, E. E., Ranker, L., Gianattasio, K. Z., Pedde, M., Adar, S. D., Yanosky, J. D., & Power, M. C. (2021) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp8716 · Cited by 209
“…al. 2010), and socioeconomic factors may be tied to cognitive reserve (Stern et al. 2018), which posits that early and midlife advantage may confer protection from cognitive symptoms typically associated with an underlying dementia process until the process reaches a more severe state (Stern 2012).”
Subramaniapillai, S., Almey, A., Rajah, M. N., & Einstein, G. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2020.100879 · Cited by 215
“…level, occupational complexity, Intelligence Quotient (IQ), cognitively stimulating activities, bilingualism, socioeconomic status (SES), physical activity, and social support (Baldivia, Andrade, & Bueno, 2008; Barulli & Stern, 2013; Calvo, García, Manoiloff, & Ibáñez, 2016; Stern, 2002, 2012).”
Clouston, S., Smith, D. M., Mukherjee, S., Zhang, Y., Hou, W., Link, B. G., & Richards, M. (2019) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbz053 · Cited by 221
“…https://academ ic.oup.com /psychsocgerontology/article/75/7/e151/5486157 by R hode Island C ollege user on 13 January 2021 theoretical framework (Stern, 2012), findings suggested that higher education was associated with both higher baseline functioning and with later onset of accelerated…”
BackgroundAdult Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Major Depressive Disorder and Alzheimer’s Disease
Berger, T., Lee, H. A., Young, A. H., Aarsland, D., & Thuret, S. (2020) · Trends in Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2020.03.010 · Cited by 206
Neurocognitive Aging and the Hippocampus across Species
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Irazoki, E., Contreras-Somoza, L. M., Toribio-Guzmán, J. M., Río, C. J., van der Roest, H. G., & Franco, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00648 · Cited by 221
“Due to this pre-existing cognitive processing approach, people with higher cognitive reserve deal better with pathologies, atrophies, or injuries (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundSommerlad, A., Sabia, S., Singh-Manoux, A., Lewis, G., & Livingston, G. (2019) · PLOS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002862 · Cited by 201
Rentz, D. M., Parra, M. A., Amariglio, R. E., Stern, Y., Sperling, R. A., & Ferris, S. H. (2013) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/alzrt222 · Cited by 212
“demonstrating declines on cognitive testing [17], and thus may interfere with our ability to detect subtle”
Self-citationSafiri, S., Jolfayi, A. G., Fazlollahi, A., Morsali, S., Sarkesh, A., Sorkhabi, A. D., Golabi, B., Aletaha, R., Asghari, K. M., Hamidi, S., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2024.1474043 · Cited by 273
Mielke, M. M., Aggarwal, N. T., Vila‐Castelar, C., Agarwal, P., Arenaza‐Urquijo, E. M., Brett, B., Brugulat‐Serrat, A., DuBose, L. E., Eikelboom, W. S., Flatt, J., et al. (2022) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12662 · Cited by 198
Cerebral small vessel disease and vascular cognitive impairment: from diagnosis to management
Zotin, M. C. Z., Sveikata, L., Viswanathan, A., & Yilmaz, P. (2021) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/wco.0000000000000913 · Cited by 221
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“The concept is based on the notion that sociobehavioral proxies such as education, intellectually engaging occupation, and various other activities help build more resilient neuronal networks that shield cognitive function even as AD biomarkers point to progressing neuropathology (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundFunctional Disability in Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Lindbergh, C. A., Dishman, R. K., & Miller, L. S. (2016) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-016-9321-5 · Cited by 201
“This of course does not suggest that educational attainment does not delay the onset of decline, but rather that by the time an individual meets criteria for MCI, there is risk for impairment in complex everyday skills regardless of cognitive reserve factors that may have buffered decline to that point (Stern 2012).”
BackgroundRahman, A., Jackson, H. C., Hristov, H., Isaacson, R., Saif, N., Shetty, T., Etingin, O. R., Henchcliffe, C., Brinton, R. D., & Mosconi, L. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00315 · Cited by 204
“…315 for this relationship lies in the idea of “cognitive reserve,” the brain’s ability to effectively utilize cognitive networks to allow individuals to normally perform cognitive activities despite sustaining pathological brain abnormalities such as increases in Aβ and tau levels (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluence of young adult cognitive ability and additional education on later-life cognition
Kremen, W. S., Beck, A., Elman, J. A., Gustavson, D. E., Reynolds, C. A., Tu, X. M., Sanderson-Cimino, M. E., Panizzon, M. S., Vuoksimaa, E., Toomey, R., et al. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1811537116 · Cited by 180
“They are also frequently used as indices of cognitive reserve (7); for example, higher education is associated with greater resistance to Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathology (4, 8).”
BackgroundDementia in Africa: current evidence, knowledge gaps, and future directions
Akinyemi, R. O., Yaria, J., Ojagbemi, A., Guerchet, M., Okubadejo, N., Njamnshi, A. K., Sarfo, F. S., Akpalu, A., Ogbole, G., Ayantayo, T., et al. (2022) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12432 · Cited by 184
Cognitive Aging and Dementia: A Life-Span Perspective
Tucker–Drob, E. M. (2019) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-085204 · Cited by 202
“…is often represented as a process marked by an abrupt transition to precipitous decline from a long period of fully maintained cognitive function (cf. Stern 2012), it may be more accurately represented as a continuous process of change marked by accelerated decline, for some, with advancing age.”
BackgroundInfluentialDistinct 18F-AV-1451 tau PET retention patterns in early- and late-onset Alzheimer’s disease
Schöll, M., Ossenkoppele, R., Strandberg, O., Palmqvist, S., study, T. S. B., Jögi, J., Ohlsson, T., Smith, R., & Hansson, O. (2017) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awx171 · Cited by 180
Valero, J., Mastrella, G., Neiva, I., Sánchez, S., & Malva, J. O. (2014) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00083 · Cited by 186
“Recently, the involvement of the brain cognitive reserve in the development of this pathology has gained a renewed interest (Stern, 2012; Ewers et al., 2013; Lo et al., 2013).”
BackgroundCognitive impairment across ALS clinical stages in a population-based cohort
Chiò, A., Moglia, C., Canosa, A., Manera, U., Vasta, R., Brunetti, M., Barberis, M., Corrado, L., D’Alfonso, S., Bersano, E., et al. (2019) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000008063 · Cited by 180
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Occupational complexity and lifetime cognitive abilities
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“It has been suggested that environmental factors, such as occupational complexity, may affect a person’s cognitive abilities by increasing structural brain reserve, increasing neural efficacy, or alternatively may help to utilize compensatory pathways.(6) Recent findings suggest that there are multiple biological path…”
BackgroundFriedler, B. D., Crapser, J. D., & McCullough, L. D. (2014) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-014-1377-9 · Cited by 183
“To account for this, the concept of ‘brain reserve’ has been developed, which posits that larger brains have more neural matter that can be lost to normal aging or disease-related injury before clinical symptoms manifest [115, 116].”
BackgroundChapko, D., McCormack, R., Black, C., Staff, R. T., & Murray, A. D. (2017) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2017.1348471 · Cited by 191
“CR is malleable throughout life and can be improved with intervention (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundCassarino, M., & Setti, A. (2015) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2015.06.003 · Cited by 200
ALS phenotype is influenced by age, sex, and genetics
Chiò, A., Moglia, C., Canosa, A., Manera, U., D’Ovidio, F., Vasta, R., Grassano, M., Brunetti, M., Barberis, M., Corrado, L., et al. (2020) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000008869 · Cited by 173
Dementia in Latin America: Epidemiological Evidence and Implications for Public Policy
Custodio, N., Wheelock, A., Thumala, D., & Slachevsky, A. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00221 · Cited by 184
“Stern’s theoretical explanation (Stern, 2012) is that, when individuals with high cognitive reserves reach the point where cognitive function is affected, they have a cerebral pathological burden nearing their total capacity, and at that point clinical manifestations are florid and evolve quickly,…”
BackgroundComputerised cognitive training for preventing dementia in people with mild cognitive impairment
Gates, N. J., Vernooij, R. W. M., Nisio, M. D., Karim, S., March, E. G., Martínez, G., & Rutjes, A. W. (2019) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd012279.pub2 · Cited by 186
Recent Progress in Alzheimer’s Disease Research, Part 2: Genetics and Epidemiology
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“These results and others have led to the formation of the cognitive reserve hypothesis, which posits that excess dendritic connections provide a reserve so that executive function is still retained with increasing cerebral atrophy [46].”
ResultAge-related Hearing Loss and Dementia
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Hughes, M. L., Agrigoroaei, S., Jeon, M., Bruzzese, M., & Lachman, M. E. (2018) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617718000425 · Cited by 177
“…those with greater cognitive reserve (e.g., higher education) show steeper decline in later life for verbal memory (Alley, Suthers, & Crimmins, 2007) and faster progression of decrements among those with dementia including Alzheimer’s disease (Scarmeas, Albert, Manly, & Stern, 2006; Stern, 2012).”
The neural and neurocomputational bases of recovery from post-stroke aphasia
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Association Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Dementia in Older Japanese Adults
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“This idea echoes previously described “brain reserve” concepts (23) and Table 2.”
BackgroundBhagwat, N., Viviano, J. D., Voineskos, A. N., Chakravarty, M. M., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2018) · PLOS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006376 · Cited by 157
Development and validation of a brief dementia screening indicator for primary care
Barnes, D. E., Beiser, A., Lee, A., Langa, K. M., Koyama, A. K., Preis, S. R., Neuhaus, J. M., McCammon, R. J., Yaffe, K. S., Seshadri, S. S., et al. (2014) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2013.11.006 · Cited by 168
“In addition, low educational attainment is likely to be a proxy for a wide range of factors that could potentially increase dementia risk by lowering cognitive reserve [54].”
BackgroundSpatial patterns of progressive brain volume loss after moderate-severe traumatic brain injury
Cole, J. H., Jolly, A., Simoni, S. D., Bourke, N., Patel, M. C., Scott, G., & Sharp, D. J. (2017) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awx354 · Cited by 176
Ossenkoppele, R., Lyoo, C. H., Jester-Broms, J., Sudre, C. H., Cho, H., Ryu, Y. H., Choi, J. Y., Smith, R., Strandberg, O., Palmqvist, S., et al. (2020) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2019.5154 · Cited by 161
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The basis of cellular and regional vulnerability in Alzheimer’s disease
Mrdjen, D., Fox, E. J., Bukhari, S. A., Montine, K. S., Bendall, S. C., & Montine, T. J. (2019) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-019-02054-4 · Cited by 162
Consensus Paper. Cerebellar Reserve: From Cerebellar Physiology to Cerebellar Disorders
Mitoma, H., Buffo, A., Gelfo, F., Guell, X., Fucà, E., Kakei, S., Lee, J., Manto, M. U., Petrosini, L., Shaikh, A. G., et al. (2019) · The Cerebellum · doi:10.1007/s12311-019-01091-9 · Cited by 171
“Stern (2012) defined three types of reserve, brain (i.e., anatomical) reserve, cognitive (i.e., functional) reserve, and neural (i.e., network-based) reserve [5–7].”
BackgroundInfluentialCognitive impairment in the U.S.: Lifetime risk, age at onset, and years impaired
Hale, J. M., Schneider, D. C., Mehta, N. K., & Myrskylä, M. (2020) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100577 · Cited by 175
“The cognitive reserve hypothesis posits that education works through building a larger reserve capacity (structural and functional) (Jones et al., 2011; Meng & D’Arcy, 2012; Stern, 2012; Valenzuela & Sachdev, 2006).”
BackgroundA right hemisphere role in cognitive reserve
Robertson, I. H. (2013) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2013.11.028 · Cited by 155
“This cluster of seemingly protective factors has been termed ‘cognitive reserve’ (Stern, 2012) and Stern distinguishes between two types of ‘reserve’.”
Early-onset and delayed-onset poststroke dementia — revisiting the mechanisms
Mok, V., Lam, B. Y. K., Wong, A., Ko, H., Markus, H. S., & Wong, K. S. (2017) · Nature Reviews Neurology · doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2017.16 · Cited by 159
Liu, H., Zhang, Y., Burgard, S. A., & Needham, B. L. (2019) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2019.08.007 · Cited by 169
“, degree of participation in a community or society) and a larger network size may reduce the risk of dementia by improving cognitive reserves, which strengthen the ability to cope with neuropathological damage [38,58].”
BackgroundFernández‐Mayoralas, G., Rojo‐Pérez, F., Martínez‐Martín, P., Prieto-Flores, M.-E., Rodríguez‐Blázquez, C., Martín‐García, S., Rojo-Abuín, J.-M., & Forjaz, M. J. (2015) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2014.996734 · Cited by 175
“In this context, a higher educational level implies a greater cognitive reserve which, at least in the first stages of dementia, would also promote greater activity level (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundLipid lowering and Alzheimer disease risk: A mendelian randomization study
Williams, D. M., Finan, C., Schmidt, A. F., Burgess, S., & Hingorani, A. D. (2020) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.25642 · Cited by 157
Neuroprotective mechanisms of exercise and the importance of fitness for healthy brain ageing
Tari, A. R., Walker, T. L., Huuha, A. M., Sando, S. B., & Wisløff, U. (2025) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(25)00184-9 · Cited by 189
Causal associations between modifiable risk factors and the Alzheimer's phenome
Andrews, S. J., Fulton‐Howard, B., O'Reilly, P., Marcora, E., Goate, A. M., & collaborators of the Alzheimer's Disease Genetics Consortium (2021) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.25918 · Cited by 156
“There was no evidence that education was causally associated with AD neuropathology or CSF biomarkers, supporting the hypothesis that education mitigates dementia risk via cognitive reserve rather than affecting AD pathogenesis.(47) Bidirectional MR analysis also indicated a bidirectional effect of cortical surface ar…”
BackgroundSun, J., Wang, B., Niu, Y., Tan, Y., Fan, C., Zhang, N., Xue, J., Wei, J., & Xiang, J. (2020) · Entropy · doi:10.3390/e22020239 · Cited by 155
“Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most prevalent form of neurodegenerative dementia and includes a set of symptoms, such as memory loss and cognitive decline, that affect the ability to engage in daily activities and processes, including attention, thinking, orientation, or language [1,2].”
BackgroundMukadam, N., Sommerlad, A., & Livingston, G. (2017) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-170131 · Cited by 86
“dementia onset, possibly by enhancing neural net32 works [5] or improving specific cognitive strategies 33 [6].”
Age of first exposure to tackle football and chronic traumatic encephalopathy
Alosco, M. L., Mez, J. B., Tripodis, Y., Kiernan, P. T., Abdolmohammadi, B., Murphy, L., Kowall, N. W., Stein, T. D., Huber, B. R., Goldstein, L. E., et al. (2018) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.25245 · Cited by 156
“This is comparable to research in AD that shows certain factors (eg, cognitive reserve) influence clinical status, but are not necessarily related to the neuropathological expression of disease.(44,45) RHI intensity and duration and their interaction with variables like age and genetics (eg, APOE e4) 3,7 may be more i…”
Shah, T. M., Weinborn, M., Verdile, G., Sohrabi, H. R., & Martins, R. N. (2017) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-016-9338-9 · Cited by 159
Anderson, E. L., Howe, L. D., Wade, K. H., Ben‐Shlomo, Y., Hill, W. D., Deary, I. J., Sanderson, E. C. M., Zheng, J., Korologou‐Linden, R., Stergiakouli, E., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyz280 · Cited by 153
PSD-95 protects synapses from β-amyloid
Dore, K., Carrico, Z., Alfonso, S., Marino, M., Koymans, K., Kessels, H. W., & Malinow, R. (2021) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109194 · Cited by 149
English Longitudinal Study of Aging: Can Internet/E-mail Use Reduce Cognitive Decline?
Xavier, A. J., d’Orsi, E., de Oliveira, C. M., Orrell, M. W., Demakakos, P., Biddulph, J. P., & Marmot, M. G. (2014) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glu105 · Cited by 151
Luo, Y., Pan, X., & Zhang, Z. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.09.052 · Cited by 150
Samtani, S., Mahalingam, G., Lam, B. C. P., Lipnicki, D. M., Lima-Costa, M. F., Blay, S. L., Castro-Costa, E., Shifu, X., Guerchet, M., Preux, P.-M., et al. (2022) · The Lancet Healthy Longevity · doi:10.1016/s2666-7568(22)00199-4 · Cited by 151
Montreal cognitive assessment reflects cognitive reserve
Kang, J. M., Cho, Y.-S., Park, S., Lee, B. H., Sohn, B. K., Choi, C.-H., Choi, J.-S., Jeong, H. Y., Cho, S., Lee, J. H., et al. (2018) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-018-0951-8 · Cited by 152
Cognitive reserve and clinical progression in Alzheimer disease
van Loenhoud, A. C., van der Flier, W. M., Wink, A. M., Dicks, E., Groot, C., Twisk, J. W. R., Barkhof, F., Scheltens, P., Ossenkoppele, R., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2019) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000007821 · Cited by 159
“Although our neuroimaging measure thus contains some variance of no interest, the nature of our results and their compatibility with the theoretical model nevertheless suggest that the (GM-based whole-brain and temporoparietal) W scores truly reflected CR. Gaining a better understanding of how trajectories of clinical…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRecent update on the heterogeneity of the Alzheimer’s disease spectrum
Jellinger, K. A. (2021) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-021-02449-2 · Cited by 155
“2019; Stern 2012).”
BackgroundLeft frontal cortex connectivity underlies cognitive reserve in prodromal Alzheimer disease
Franzmeier, N., Duering, M., Weiner, M. W., Dichgans, M., Ewers, M., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2017) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000003711 · Cited by 148
“Education is highly correlated with other CR proxies, including IQ(20) or occupational attainment,(21) and is to date the best established CR proxy.(19)”
BackgroundDementia in Latin America: Paving the way toward a regional action plan
Parra, M. A., Báez, S., Sedeño, L., Campo, C. G., Santamaría‐García, H. A., Aprahamian, I., Bertolucci, P. H. F., Bustin, J., Bicalho, M. A. C., Cano, C. A., et al. (2020) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12202 · Cited by 155
Strategies for dementia prevention: latest evidence and implications
Rakesh, G., Szabo, S. T., Alexopoulos, G. S., & Zannas, A. S. (2017) · Therapeutic Advances in Chronic Disease · doi:10.1177/2040622317712442 · Cited by 164
Exploring strategies to operationalize cognitive reserve: A systematic review of reviews
Harrison, S. L., Sajjad, A., Bramer, W. M., Ikram, M. A., Tiemeier, H. W., & Stephan, B. C. M. (2015) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2014.1002759 · Cited by 148
“education, occupational attainment, and increased leisure activities are associated with lower levels of cerebral blood flow, a marker for Alzheimer’s pathology (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialand the Subjective Cognitive Decline Initiative (SCD-I) Working Group, Smart, C. M., Karr, J. E., Areshenkoff, C. N., Rabin, L. A., Hudon, C., Gates, N., Ali, J. I., Arenaza-Urquijo, E. M., Buckley, R. F., et al. (2017) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-017-9342-8 · Cited by 145
“…presumed to have relatively preserved current cognitive function and greater access to cognitive reserve NON-PHARMACOLOGIC INTERVENTIONS IN SCD 7 (Stern, 2009; 2012), both of which improve the likelihood of their being able to benefit from NPI before significant cognitive difficulties are…”
Mandelblatt, J. S., Hurria, A., McDonald, B. C., Saykin, A. J., Stern, R. A., VanMeter, J. W., McGuckin, M., Traina, T., Denduluri, N., Turner, R. S., et al. (2013) · Seminars in Oncology · doi:10.1053/j.seminoncol.2013.09.006 · Cited by 155
Biological and environmental predictors of heterogeneity in neurocognitive ageing
Nyberg, L. H., Boraxbekk, C., Sörman, D. E., Hansson, P., Herlitz, A., Kauppi, K., Ljungberg, J. K., Lövheim, H., Lundquist, A., Adolfsson, A. N., et al. (2020) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2020.101184 · Cited by 156
“A factor that has been introduced to explain such inter-individual variability in the ability to compensate is cognitive reserve (e.g., Stern, 2012).”
Chan, D., Shafto, M., Kievit, R., Matthews, F., Spink, M., Valenzuela, M., & Henson, R. N. (2018) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.06.012 · Cited by 141
Differential effects of cognitive reserve and brain reserve on cognition in Alzheimer disease
Groot, C., van Loenhoud, A. C., Barkhof, F., van Berckel, B. N. M., Koene, T., Teunissen, C. E., Scheltens, P., van der Flier, W. M., & Ossenkoppele, R. (2017) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000004802 · Cited by 157
“Exclusion criteria were (1) significant cerebrovascular disease on MRI, (2) a history of substance abuse, (3) major traumatic brain injury, (4) major psychiatric or neurologic disorders (other than AD), and (5) meeting core clinical criteria for an atypical variant of AD (e.”
BackgroundOliveira, J., Gamito, P. S., Souto, T., Conde, A. R., Ferreira, M. J., Corotnean, T., Fernandes, A., Silva, H., & Neto, T. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18105290 · Cited by 185
“CR is a complex construct that is viewed as an active mechanism in association with the brain ́s potential to change enabled by neuroplasticity, which bears clear implications in the context of cognitive intervention [47,48].”
BackgroundBilingualism: Pathway to Cognitive Reserve
Bialystok, E. (2021) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.003 · Cited by 167
Cognitive impairment caused by hypoxia: from clinical evidences to molecular mechanisms
Wang, X., Cui, L., & Ji, X. (2021) · Metabolic Brain Disease · doi:10.1007/s11011-021-00796-3 · Cited by 145
Living alone and cognitive function in later life
Evans, I. E. M., Llewellyn, D. J., Matthews, F. E., Woods, R. T., Brayne, C., & Clare, L. (2019) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2018.12.014 · Cited by 142
“In line with cognitive reserve theory, we predicted that people living alone may have less opportunity for social contact and hence may have lower levels of cognitive reserve and poorer cognitive function (de Jong Gierveld & Havens, 2004; de Jong Gierveld, 2003; Kobayashi et al., 2009; Stern, 2012).”
Cognitive and social lifestyle: links with neuropathology and cognition in late life
Bennett, D. A., Arnold, S. E., Valenzuela, M., Brayne, C., & Schneider, J. A. (2013) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-013-1226-2 · Cited by 148
“Overall, the discordance between neuropathology and cognitive impairment constitutes prima facie evidence for the role of some type of neural, brain or cognitive reserve [43, 85, 107, 125, 155].”
BackgroundSnitz, B. E., Wang, T., Cloonan, Y. K., Jacobsen, E. P., Chang, C. H., Hughes, T. F., Kamboh, M. I., & Ganguli, M. (2018) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2017.12.003 · Cited by 139
“As well, this finding may be consistent with the cognitive reserve prediction of accelerated cognitive decline in higher reserve individuals subsequent to delayed onset of clinical symptoms [35,36].”
ResultCulture, Ethnicity, and Level of Education in Alzheimer's Disease
Rosselli, M., Vélez-Uribe, I., Ahne, E., & Shihadeh, L. (2022) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-022-01193-z · Cited by 154
“This theory suggests that the brain uses existing “cognitive reserve/reservoirs” to compensate for pathology [70], implying that people with higher levels of education show AD symptoms later than those with less education.”
BackgroundInfluentialSeyedsalehi, A., Warrier, V., Bethlehem, R. A. I., Perry, B. I., Burgess, S., & Murray, G. K. (2022) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awac392 · Cited by 141
“It is also plausible that the protective effect of education on Alzheimer’s disease is better explained by the related concept of ‘cognitive reserve’, which refers to the capacity of the brain to cope with pathology through more efficient use of pre-existing cognitive networks or via recruitment of compensatory neural…”
BackgroundLee, A. T. C., Richards, M., Chan, W. C., Chiu, H. F. K., Lee, R. S. Y., & Lam, L. C. W. (2018) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0657 · Cited by 124
The interaction between ageing and Alzheimer's disease: insights from the hallmarks of ageing
Liu, Y., Tan, Y., Zhang, Z., Yi, M., Zhu, L., & Peng, W. (2024) · Translational Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/s40035-024-00397-x · Cited by 156
“Studies have demonstrated varying degrees of ageing, such as senescence of different cell types, in both AD patients and animal models [8].”
BackgroundBoots, E. A., Schultz, S. A., Almeida, R. P., Oh, J. M., Koscik, R. L., Dowling, N. M., Gallagher, C. L., Carlsson, C. M., Rowley, H. A., Bendlin, B. B., et al. (2015) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acv041 · Cited by 139
“For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com. doi:10.1093/arclin/acv041 Advance Access publication on 8 July 2015 maintain a comparable level of cognitive function to individuals with less pathology (Stern, 2012; Stern et al., 1992).”
BackgroundInfluentialMcCartney, D. L., Stevenson, A. J., Walker, R. M., Gibson, J., Morris, S. W., Campbell, A., Murray, A. D., Whalley, H. C., Porteous, D. J., McIntosh, A. M., et al. (2018) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1016/j.dadm.2018.05.006 · Cited by 136
Cortical hypermetabolism in MCI subjects: a compensatory mechanism?
Ashraf, A., Fan, Z., Brooks, D. J., & Edison, P. (2014) · European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging · doi:10.1007/s00259-014-2919-z · Cited by 143
“This form of neuronal compensation, as a manifestation of adaptive plasticity, is a concept used to explain why some individuals are able to tolerate substantial pathological burden for longer prior to experiencing cognitive loss [38].”
BackgroundAlzheimer's Disease: A Clinical and Basic Science Review
Korolev, I. O. (2014) · Cited by 146
Zhu, X., Qiu, C., Zeng, Y., & Li, J. (2017) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610216001769 · Cited by 145
“The cognitive reserve hypothesis suggests that an engaged lifestyle may enable related neural networks more efficient or plastic, thus result in postponement dementia onset or less cognitive deterioration (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialNeurophysiological Markers of Alzheimer’s Disease: Quantitative EEG Approach
Smailović, U., & Jelić, V. (2019) · Neurology and Therapy · doi:10.1007/s40120-019-00169-0 · Cited by 152
Research Gaps and Controversies in Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy: A Review
Asken, B. M., Sullan, M. J., DeKosky, S. T., Jaffee, M. S., & Bauer, R. M. (2017) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2017.2396 · Cited by 135
Protective genes and pathways in Alzheimer’s disease: moving towards precision interventions
Seto, M., Weiner, R. L., Dumitrescu, L., & Hohman, T. J. (2021) · Molecular Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/s13024-021-00452-5 · Cited by 135
“such as longevity [36], cognitive reserve [37], educational attainment [38], or brain reserve [37, 39].”
BackgroundVega, I. E., Cabrera, L. Y., Wygant, C. M., Ortiz, D. V., & Counts, S. (2017) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-161261 · Cited by 143
Drug development for alzheimer’s disease: Microglia induced neuroinflammation as a target
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“Multiple causes may explain this higher incidence of AD in women, including the difference of life expectancy [6], sex steroid hormones [7–9], and educational level [10,11] of men and women.”
BackgroundMultimodal Data Analysis of Alzheimer's Disease Based on Clustering Evolutionary Random Forest
Bi, X.-A., Hu, X., Wu, H., & Wang, Y. (2020) · IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics · doi:10.1109/jbhi.2020.2973324 · Cited by 137
“The insula also contributes greatly to the sample classification, and is considered to be associated with working memory [38].”
BackgroundPost-traumatic stress disorder as a risk factor for dementia: systematic review and meta-analysis
Günak, M. M., Billings, J., Carratu, E., Marchant, N. L., Favarato, G., & Orgeta, V. (2020) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2020.150 · Cited by 134
Postoperative cognitive dysfunction—current research progress
Zhao, Q., Wan, H., Pan, H., & Xu, Y. (2024) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1328790 · Cited by 154
“Additionally, those with greater cultural reserve demonstrate a deceleration in the aging process and cognitive function decline (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundGorges, M., Müller, H., Lulé, D. E., Pinkhardt, E. H., Ludolph, A. C., & Kassubek, J. (2015) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.12.026 · Cited by 134
“In addition, it can be hypothesized that ongoing functional remapping accompanies the spreading of the pathologic process until the onset of axonal fiber damage: for instance, a hyperconnectivity state in Alzheimer’s disease was consistently reported to reflect adaptive changes as an attempt to maintain cognitive perf…”
New landscape of the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease
Frisoni, G. B., Hansson, O., Nichols, E., Garibotto, V., Schindler, S. E., van der Flier, W. M., Jessen, F., Villain, N., Arenaza-Urquijo, E. M., Crivelli, L., et al. (2025) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(25)01294-2 · Cited by 143
Initiative, A. D. N., Pascoal, T. A., Mathotaarachchi, S. S., Mohades, S. T., Benedet, A. L., Chung, C.-O., Shin, M., Wang, S., Beaudry, T., Kang, M. S., et al. (2016) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2016.37 · Cited by 137
“It is important to mention that ADNI participants are highly educated; therefore mechanisms of brain and cognitive reserve may play a role in the [ 18 F]FDG PET outcomes reported here 45 .”
Metadata
- Authors
- Stern, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stern, Yaakov
- ORCID
- Stern, Yaakov
- Venue
- The Lancet Neurology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1006-1012
- ISSN
- 1474-4422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3507991
- OpenAlex
- W2144907160
- Cited by
- 3,557
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 412 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 311 · 2023: 343 · 2022: 281 · 2021: 303 · 2020: 350 · 2019: 292 · 2018: 244 · 2017: 213 · 2016: 176 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 93 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- The Lancet Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026158, R01AG014671)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, brain reserve, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive aging, dementia risk, educational attainment, occupational attainment, leisure
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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