The differential effects of EPA and DHA on cardiovascular risk factors

Cottin, S. C.; Sanders, T. A.; Hall, W. L.

doi:10.1017/s0029665111000061

Cited by 247Fatty Acid Research and HealthEdible Oils Quality and AnalysisAquaculture Nutrition and Growth

The differential effects of EPA and DHA on cardiovascular risk factors

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Cottin, S. C., Sanders, T. A., Hall, W. L.·2011·Proceedings of the Nutrition Society

DOI 10.1017/s0029665111000061

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Abstract

Compelling evidence exists for the cardioprotective benefits resulting from consumption of fatty acids from fish oils, EPA (20:5 n-3) and DHA (22:6 n-3). EPA and DHA alter membrane fluidity, interact with transcription factors such as PPAR and sterol regulatory element binding protein, and are substrates for enzymes including cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase and cytochrome P450. As a result, fish oils may improve cardiovascular health by altering lipid metabolism, inducing haemodynamic changes, decreasing arrhythmias, modulating platelet function, improving endothelial function and inhibiting inflammatory pathways. The independent effects of EPA and DHA are poorly understood. While both EPA and DHA decrease TAG levels, only DHA appears to increase HDL and LDL particle size. Evidence to date suggests that DHA is more efficient in decreasing blood pressure, heart rate and platelet aggregation compared to EPA. Fish oil consumption appears to improve arterial compliance and endothelial function; it is not yet clear as to whether differences exist between EPA and DHA in their vascular effects. In contrast, the beneficial effect of fish oils on inflammation and insulin sensitivity observed in vitro and in animal studies has not been confirmed in human subjects. Further investigation to clarify the relative effects of consuming EPA and DHA at a range of doses would enable elaboration of current understanding regarding cardioprotective effects of consuming oily fish and algal sources of long chain n-3 PUFA, and provide clearer evidence for the clinical therapeutic potential of consuming either EPA or DHA-rich oils.

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Spirulina protein level is 60-70% dry weight, compared to 22% in beef.
“Spirulina has a protein level that is quite high, reaching from 60% to 70% of its dry weight (compared to 22% in beef).”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [57]
The Conclusion discusses algal DHA as a source of omega-3 fatty acids, not the protein content of Spirulina. Searches for Spirulina protein, 60–70% dry weight, and the 22% beef comparison found no passage addressing those figures in our copy; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Spirulina contains twice as much protein as the finest vegetable protein source.
“This type of algae contains an extraordinarily high amount of protein for a plant source; in fact, it contains twice as much protein as the finest source of protein found in vegetables.”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [57]
The Conclusion discusses algal DHA as a source of omega-3 fatty acids, not Spirulina or protein content. Searches for the claimed twofold protein comparison and for Spirulina protein content found no passage addressing either point in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Spirulina has high protein digestibility ranging from 85% to 95%.
“Additionally, it has a high digestibility of its proteins, ranging from 85% to 95%, and the process of acquiring proteins through proteolytic enzymes is straightforward in comparison to the process of obtaining enzymes from vegetables.”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [57]
The Conclusion discusses algal DHA as a source of omega-3 fatty acids, not Spirulina protein. Searches for Spirulina, 85%–95% protein digestibility, and proteolytic extraction found no passage addressing the claim in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Protein content of spirulina fluctuates by 10-15% depending on harvest time, with the most protein present in the early morning.
“The amount of protein that these algae contain fluctuates by between 10% and 15% depending on the time of harvest, with the most protein being present in the algae during the early morning [42,57].”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [57]
The Conclusion discusses algal sources of DHA, not spirulina protein. Searches for spirulina, harvest time, early morning, and a 10–15% change in protein content found no passage addressing the claim in our copy; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.77)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Spirulina is more beneficial in children suffering from malnutrition than milk powders, which contain lactic acid that is difficult to digest and absorb.
“It was discovered that this algae is more beneficial in children who are suffering from malnutrition than milk powders, which contain lactic acid that is difficult to digest and absorb.”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [57]
The Conclusion discusses algal DHA and cardiovascular risk factors, including the availability of DHA-fortified infant foods, but does not address spirulina as a treatment for malnutrition. Searches for spirulina, malnourished children, milk powder, lactic acid, and digestion found no passage supporting the claimed comparison. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Spirulina protein percentage is higher than animal meat and fish (15-25%), soybeans (35%), powdered milk (35%), peanuts (25%), eggs (12%), cereals (8-14%), and whole milk (3%).
“This amount is significantly higher than the percentages found in animal meat and fish (15–25%), soybeans (35%), powdered milk (35%), peanuts (25%), eggs (12%), cereals (8–14%), and whole milk (3%).”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [57]
The Conclusion discusses algal DHA and cardiovascular risk factors, not Spirulina protein content. Searches for Spirulina, protein composition, and the listed food percentages found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed comparison. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Humans and other animals cannot convert ALA to EPA and DHA at required levels, so dietary sources of these EFAs are critically important for the health of humans and many animals.
“Humans and other animals cannot convert ALA to EPA and DHA at required levels, so dietary sources of these EFAs are critically important for the health of humans (Cottin et al. 2011) and many animals (Li et al. 2009).”
From Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding. (2017) · cites this paper as Cottin et al. 2011
While clinical research to date strongly supports a nutritional need for oils that are enriched in DHA and EPA, there is more understanding about the bioactivity of DHA than of EPA.
“While clinical research to date strongly supports a nutritional need for oils that are enriched in DHA and EPA, there is more understanding about the bioactivity of DHA than of EPA (Conquer and Holub 1996; Holub 2009; Cottin et al. 2011).”
From Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding. (2017) · cites this paper as Cottin et al. 2011
Algal oil capsules based on a patented commercial source (Martek) and cooked salmon are reported to represent nutritionally equivalent sources of DHA.
“Algal oil capsules based on a patented commercial source (Martek) and cooked salmon are reported to represent nutritionally equivalent sources of DHA (see in Cottin et al. 2011).”
From Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding. (2017) · cites this paper as Cottin et al. 2011
Numerous epidemiological and controlled interventional trials support the health benefits to humans of DHA and EPA long-chain omega-3 fatty acids from fish oils and algal sources (mainly extracts).
“Numerous epidemiological and controlled interventional trials (N.B., the excellent reviews of Conquer and Holub 1996; Holub 2009; Cottin et al. 2011) support the health benefits to humans of DHA and EPA long-chain omega-3 fatty acids from fish oils and algal sources (mainly extracts).”
From Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding. (2017) · cites this paper as Cottin et al. 2011
Neither EPA nor DHA alone showed any effects on inflammation in double-blind trials with cystic fibrosis patients or insulin sensitivity in human subjects, despite indications for potency in vitro.
“Neither EPA nor DHA alone showed any effects on inflammation in double-blind trials with cystic fibrosis patients (Van Blervliet et al. 2008) or insulin sensitivity in human subjects, despite indications for potency in vitro (critically reviewed in Cottin et al. 2011).”
From Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding. (2017) · cites this paper as Cottin et al. 2011
Fish oils have demonstrated anti-inflammatory and insulin-sensitizing properties in vitro and in animal studies; however, human trials often yield conflicting findings.
“Fish oils also have demonstrated anti-inflammatory and insulin-sensitizing properties in vitro and in animal studies (Nauroth et al. 2010; Cottin et al. 2011); however, human trials often yield conflicting findings.”
From Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding. (2017) · cites this paper as Cottin et al. 2011

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Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding.
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“EPA, DHA, α-linolenic acid, and docosapentaenoic acid are the four essential fatty acids (omega-3) that are considered to be of the utmost importance [57].”
BackgroundInfluential
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Authors: Cottin, S. C., Sanders, T. A., & Hall, W. L.
Affiliations: King's College London (GB)
Corresponding author: Cottin, S. C.
ORCID: Sanders, T. A.
Hall, W. L.
Venue: Proceedings of the Nutrition Society
Publisher: Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published: 2011-02-24
Volume: 70
Issue: 2
Pages: 215-231
ISSN: 0029-6651 (ISSN-L)
1475-2719
DOI: 10.1017/s0029665111000061
OpenAlex: W2019409394
Cited by: 247
References: 194
Citations by year: 2026: 8 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 19
FWCI: 2.52
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified)
Locations: Proceedings of The Nutrition Society (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders: King's College London
Topics: Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Organic Chemistry › Edible Oils Quality and Analysis
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Aquaculture Nutrition and Growth
Keywords: eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, omega-3 fatty acids, fish oil, cardiovascular risk factors, cardioprotection, lipid metabolism, blood pressure, platelet aggregation, endothelial function, arterial compliance, inflammation, insulin sensitivity, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, SREBP, n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, oily fish, algal oil
MeSH terms: Cardiovascular Diseases, Cardiovascular System, Docosahexaenoic Acids, Humans, Lipids, Risk Factors, Eicosapentaenoic Acid

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The differential effects of EPA and DHA on cardiovascular risk factors

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