How similar are fluid cognition and general intelligence? A developmental neuroscience perspective on fluid cognition as an aspect of human cognitive ability
Abstract
This target article considers the relation of fluid cognitive functioning to general intelligence. A neurobiological model differentiating working memory/executive function cognitive processes of the prefrontal cortex from aspects of psychometrically defined general intelligence is presented. Work examining the rise in mean intelligence-test performance between normative cohorts, the neuropsychology and neuroscience of cognitive function in typically and atypically developing human populations, and stress, brain development, and corticolimbic connectivity in human and nonhuman animal models is reviewed and found to provide evidence of mechanisms through which early experience affects the development of an aspect of cognition closely related to, but distinct from, general intelligence. Particular emphasis is placed on the role of emotion in fluid cognition and on research indicating fluid cognitive deficits associated with early hippocampal pathology and with dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis stress-response system. Findings are seen to be consistent with the idea of an independent fluid cognitive construct and to assist with the interpretation of findings from the study of early compensatory education for children facing psychosocial adversity and from behavior genetic research on intelligence. It is concluded that ongoing development of neurobiologically grounded measures of fluid cognitive skills appropriate for young children will play a key role in understanding early mental development and the adaptive success to which it is related, particularly for young children facing social and economic disadvantage. Specifically, in the evaluation of the efficacy of compensatory education efforts such as Head Start and the readiness for school of children from diverse backgrounds, it is important to distinguish fluid cognition from psychometrically defined general intelligence.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
As a measure of fluid intelligence, NVIQ is expected to correlate with EF ability, such as the Flanker and DCCS.
“As a measure of fluid intelligence, it is expected that NVIQ correlates with EF ability, such as the Flanker and DCCS (Blair, 2006; Zelazo et al., 2013).”
From NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery Feasibility in Individuals With Williams Syndrome (2022) · cites this paper as Blair, 2006
Executive functions are largely distinct from general intelligence.
“Although executive functions are largely distinct from general intelligence (Blair, 2006), the executive function of working memory has been shown to be highly related to general mental ability in a number of studies with adults (Friedman, Miyake, Corley, Young, Defries, & Hewitt, 2006).”
From Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood (2011) · cites this paper as Blair, 2006
Cites
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 · Cited by 15,798 · see citing works
The attention system of the human brain
Posner, M. I., & Petersen, S. E. (1990) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325 · Cited by 8,070 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Some have proposed that, although the frontal lobes are heavily involved in the control of attention, more posterior, largely parietal areas make up the more important part of the seat or focus of attention, with the retention of attended information (Cowan 1995; Posner & Peterson 1990).”
BackgroundThe episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?
Baddeley, A. (2000) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01538-2 · Cited by 7,359 · see citing works
Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., Nugent, T. F., Herman, D. H., Clasen, L. S., Toga, A. W., et al. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0402680101 · Cited by 5,604 · see citing works
Pretense and representation: The origins of "theory of mind."
Leslie, A. M. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.4.412 · Cited by 3,379 · see citing works
Executive functions and developmental psychopathology.
Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01380.x · Cited by 3,150 · see citing works
Mayberg, H. S., Liotti, M., Brannan, S. K., McGinnis, S., Mahurin, R. K., Jerabek, P. A., Silva, J. A., Tekell, J. L., Martin, C. C., Lancaster, J. L., et al. (1999) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.156.5.675 · Cited by 2,416 · see citing works
Insights into the ageing mind: a view from cognitive neuroscience
Hedden, T., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2004) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1323 · Cited by 2,223 · see citing works
Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Damasio, A. R., & Lee, G. P. (1999) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.19-13-05473.1999 · Cited by 2,001 · see citing works
Nongenomic Transmission Across Generations of Maternal Behavior and Stress Responses in the Rat
Francis, D., Diorio, J., Liu, D., & Meaney, M. J. (1999) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.286.5442.1155 · Cited by 1,965 · see citing works
Primate anterior cingulate cortex: Where motor control, drive and cognition interface
Paus, T. (2001) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/35077500 · Cited by 1,722 · see citing works
The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P., & Kim, D. M. (2003) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(03)00007-1 · Cited by 1,465 · see citing works
Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life
Gottfredson, L. S. (1997) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90014-3 · Cited by 1,408 · see citing works
A normative‐developmental study of executive function: A window on prefrontal function in children
Welsh, M. C., Pennington, B. F., & Groisser, D. B. (1991) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565649109540483 · Cited by 1,313 · see citing works
Training of Working Memory in Children With ADHD
Klingberg, T., Forssberg, H., & Westerberg, H. (2002) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395 · Cited by 1,225 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…training studies with young children indicate that the training is associated with fluid cognitive gains as measured by Raven's matrices test (Klingberg et al. 2002) and the matrices section of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (Posner & Rothbart 2004) but not on other aspects of cognition.”
Engle, R. W., Kane, M. J., & Tuholski, S. W. (1999) · Models of Working Memory · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174909.007 · Cited by 1,195 · see citing works
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Rettinger, D. A., Shah, P., & Hegarty, M. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.4.621 · Cited by 1,139 · see citing works
Conway, A. R. A., Cowan, N., Bunting, M. F., Therriault, D. J., & Minkoff, S. R. B. (2002) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(01)00096-4 · Cited by 1,108 · see citing works
Working Memory and Intelligence: The Same or Different Constructs?
Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Boyle, M. O. (2005) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.30 · Cited by 969 · see citing works
Environmental Enrichment Reverses the Effects of Maternal Separation on Stress Reactivity
Francis, D. D., Diorio, J., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (2002) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.22-18-07840.2002 · Cited by 663 · see citing works
Reduced prefrontal activity predicts exaggerated striatal dopaminergic function in schizophrenia
Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Miletich, R. S., Kohn, P. D., Esposito, G., Carson, R. E., Quarantelli, M., Weinberger, D. R., & Berman, K. F. (2002) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn804 · Cited by 652 · see citing works
Barkley, R. A. (1997) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.121.1.65 · Cited by 580 · see citing works
The origin of mind: Evolution of brain, cognition, and general intelligence.
Geary, D. C. (2005) · doi:10.1037/10871-000 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Fluid intelligence after frontal lobe lesions
Duncan, J., Burgess, P., & Emslie, H. (1995) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(94)00124-8 · Cited by 537 · see citing works
Willcutt, E. G., Pennington, B. F., Boada, R., Ogline, J. S., Tunick, R. A., Chhabildas, N. A., & Olson, R. K. (2001) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.110.1.157 · Cited by 451 · see citing works
Swanson, H. L., & Sachse-Lee, C. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.2000.2587 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
Francis, D. D., Caldji, C., Champagne, F., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (1999) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(99)00237-1 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Just one g: consistent results from three test batteries
Johnson, W., Bouchard, T. J., Krueger, R. F., McGue, M., & Gottesman, I. I. (2004) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(03)00062-x · Cited by 353 · see citing works
KAUFMAN, J., & CHARNEY, D. (2001) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579401003030 · Cited by 233 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…and regulation being that prefrontally mediated fluid cognitive processes directly influence and, most important for present purposes, are influenced by emotional and autonomic responses to stimulation (Erickson et al. 2003; de Kloet et al. 1999; Groenewegen & Uylings 2000; Kaufman & Charney 2001).”
BackgroundGenetics and general cognitive ability (g)
Plomin, R., & Spinath, F. M. (2002) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01853-2 · Cited by 191 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Specifically , heritability estimates of g in young children are small, at about 20%, but increase to about 60% in adult samples (Plomin & Spinath 2002).”
Background
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x · Cited by 3,140 · see citing works
Self-citationAn integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.115.2.336 · Cited by 1,576 · see citing works
School Readiness and Self-Regulation: A Developmental Psychobiological Approach
Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2015) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015221 · Cited by 1,240 · see citing works
Self-citationIntelligence: New findings and theoretical developments
Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., & Turkheimer, E. (2012) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0026699 · Cited by 968 · see citing works
Self-citationPromoting Academic and Social-Emotional School Readiness: The Head Start REDI Program
Bierman, K. L., Domitrovich, C. E., Nix, R. L., Gest, S. D., Welsh, J. A., Greenberg, M. T., Blair, C., Nelson, K. E., & Gill, S. (2008) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01227.x · Cited by 884 · see citing works
Self-citationII. NIH TOOLBOX COGNITION BATTERY (CB): MEASURING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION AND ATTENTION
Zelazo, P. D., Anderson, J. E., Richler, J., Wallner-Allen, K., Beaumont, J. L., & Weintraub, S. (2013) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12032 · Cited by 823 · see citing works
Bierman, K. L., Nix, R. L., Greenberg, M. T., Blair, C., & Domitrovich, C. E. (2008) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579408000394 · Cited by 720 · see citing works
Self-citationBlair, C., Granger, D. A., Willoughby, M., Mills-Koonce, R., Cox, M., Greenberg, M. T., Kivlighan, K. T., Fortunato, C. K., & the FLP Investigators (2011) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01643.x · Cited by 579 · see citing works
Self-citationThe level and nature of autistic intelligence
Dawson, M., Soulières, I., Ann Gernsbacher, M., & Mottron, L. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01954.x · Cited by 549 · see citing works
Personality Psychology and Economics
Almlund, M., Duckworth, A. L., Heckman, J., & Kautz, T. (2011) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w16822 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
Rauh, V., Arunajadai, S., Horton, M., Perera, F., Hoepner, L., Barr, D. B., & Whyatt, R. (2011) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1003160 · Cited by 524 · see citing works
“More important, problems in working memory may interfere with reading comprehension, learning, and academic achievement, although general intelligence remains in the normal range (Blair 2006).”
BackgroundThe Science of Wisdom in a Polarized World: Knowns and Unknowns
Grossmann, I., Weststrate, N. M., Ardelt, M., Brienza, J. P., Dong, M., Ferrari, M., Fournier, M. A., Hu, C. S., Nusbaum, H. C., & Vervaeke, J. (2020) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2020.1750917 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Dumontheil, I. (2014) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2014.07.009 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Rhoades, B. L., Greenberg, M. T., Lanza, S. T., & Blair, C. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.08.004 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Self-citationAkshoomoff, N., Beaumont, J. L., Bauer, P. J., Dikmen, S. S., Gershon, R. C., Mungas, D., Slotkin, J., Tulsky, D., Weintraub, S., Zelazo, P. D., et al. (2013) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12038 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Valentin Kvist, A., & Gustafsson, J.-E. (2008) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.08.004 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Bull, R., Espy, K. A., Wiebe, S. A., Sheffield, T. D., & Nelson, J. M. (2011) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01012.x · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Executive Functioning in Children with ASD: An Analysis of the BRIEF
Blijd-Hoogewys, E. M. A., Bezemer, M. L., & van Geert, P. L. C. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2176-9 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Direct and Indirect Effects of Parenting on the Academic Functioning of Young Homeless Children
Herbers, J. E., Cutuli, J. J., Lafavor, T. L., Vrieze, D., Leibel, C., Obradović, J., & Masten, A. S. (2011) · Early Education & Development · doi:10.1080/10409280903507261 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.
Engelhardt, L. E., Mann, F. D., Briley, D. A., Church, J. A., Harden, K. P., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000195 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Developmental shifts in fMRI activations during visuospatial relational reasoning
Eslinger, P. J., Blair, C., Wang, J., Lipovsky, B., Realmuto, J., Baker, D., Thorne, S., Gamson, D., Zimmerman, E., Rohrer, L., et al. (2009) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2008.04.010 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationFord, R. M., McDougall, S. J. P., & Evans, D. (2009) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/000712609x406762 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Petrican, R., Taylor, M. J., & Grady, C. L. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.09.025 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Development of executive functioning in school-age Tunisian children.
Bellaj, T., Salhi, I., Le Gall, D., & Roy, A. (2016) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1058349 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Roy, A., Allain, P., Roulin, J.-L., Fournet, N., & Le Gall, D. (2015) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2015.1072138 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery Feasibility in Individuals With Williams Syndrome
Condy, E. E., Becker, L., Farmer, C., Kaat, A. J., Chlebowski, C., Kozel, B. A., & Thurm, A. (2022) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-127.6.473 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
- Authors
- Blair, C.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Blair, Clancy
- ORCID
- Blair, Clancy
- Venue
- Behavioral and Brain Sciences
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2006-04
- Volume
- 29
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 109-125
- ISSN
- 0140-525X (ISSN-L)
- 1469-1825
- OpenAlex
- W2124514491
- Cited by
- 434
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 29.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Behavioral and Brain Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- fluid cognition, general intelligence, prefrontal cortex, working memory, executive function, emotional arousal, hippocampal pathology, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, stress response, brain development, compensatory education, Head Start, early childhood, socioeconomic deprivation, cognitive development
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Animals, Brain, Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Emotions, Hippocampus, Humans, Intelligence, Limbic System, Memory, Short-Term, Models, Neurological, Psychometrics, Prefrontal Cortex
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
