The "testing" phenomenon: Not gone but nearly forgotten.
Abstract
The "testing " phenomenon refers to the finding that students who take a test on material between the time they first study and the time they take a final test remember more of the material than students who do not take an intervening test. 4 experiments examined the testing phenomenon in student's memory for brief passages and labels for parts of flowers. Experiments la and lb demonstrated the generality of the phenomenon to the methods and materials used in the current study. Experiment 2 ruled out an "amount of processing " hypothesis as a way of accounting for the testing phenomenon. The results of Experiment 3 seemed to indicate that the testing phenomenon resided in the number of complete retrieval events. Experiments 4a, 4b, and 4c focused on the completeness of retrieval events and indicated that the influence of retrieval on later memory performance was determined, at least in part, by the completeness of the initial retrieval event. Although there are numerous reasons for testing students' learning, one important factor is that tests improve students' memory for content (Modigliani & Hedges, 1987). In typical laboratory studies examining the so-called testing phenomenon,
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In Glover (1989), final recall was greater when an initial test had occurred; both college students remembering an essay and seventh-grade students learning parts of a flower benefited from having taken a test without feedback 4 days before the final test.
“In Glover's (1989) study, final recall was greater when an initial test had occurred.Both college students remembering an essay and seventh-grade students learning parts of a flower benefited from having taken a test (without feedback) 4 days before the final test.”
From Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning (2021) · cites this paper as Glover 1989
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ResultThe effects of tests on learning and forgetting.
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“by the practice items and strengthening connections between that material and related content (Bahrick and Hall, 1991; Glover, 1989).”
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“This phenomenon is known as the testing effect ( Glover, 1989; Spitzer, 1939).”
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“…recall, a common laboratory task that consists of remembering everything one can, with essays, asserting that free recall is reflective of “typical classroom assignments” such as “brief essays” (Glover, 1989, p. 398; see also Schmidt, 1983 and Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a, for similar arguments).”
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“The effects of retrieval may be even more powerful when students are asked to ‘‘generate’’ an answer (Bjork & Bjork, 2011), rather than recognize it as correct (as they do when responding to multiple-choice questions) (Duchastel, 1981; Glover, 1989; Kang, McDermott, & Roediger, 2007; McDaniel, Derbish, & Morrisette, 2…”
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“Therefore, information that is presented on one test (which is an opportunity for processing time) should be more easily recalled during future test-taking attempts (Glover, 1989).”
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ResultInterprofessional team-based learning (TBL): how do students engage?
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Chapter 7 – Retrieval Processes
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“…domains (Carpenter et al. 2016; McDermott et al. 2014; Rohrer et al. 2014), many kinds of to-be-learned information (Carpenter and DeLosh 2005; Roediger III and Karpicke 2006), and different memory tests (Agarwal et al. 2008; Butler and Roediger 2007; Glover 1989; Putnam and Roediger 2013).”
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“…2014), others suggest that SA questions are more effective than MC questions, because the former promote retrieval processes, whereas the latter may rely on recognition processes, given that the correct response is present among the alternatives (e.g., Glover, 1989; Carpenter and DeLosh, 2006).”
BackgroundRetrieval‐Based Learning: Research at the Interface between Cognitive Science and Education
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“Evidence shows that two of the strongest factors influencing learning are repeatedly testing oneself or being tested on the concept (Glover, 1989; Karpicke and Roediger, 2007) and receiving immediate feedback on the result (McKendree, 1990; Hattie and Timperley, 2007).”
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“Research on RP has shown that taking a practice test improves learning dramatically compared to other learning strategies as rereading or re-studying (See e.g., Gates, 1917; Glover, 1989; McDaniel & Fisher, 1991; McDaniel et al., b, 2007a,; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a).”
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“Experimental work has established that retrieval practice can promote learning and retention for content from expository text (e.g., Glover, 1989; Kang et al., 2007; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006b).”
BackgroundKnowledge Reconsolidation: A Psychological Foundation for Team-Based Learning.
Schmidt, H., Rotgans, J., Rajalingam, P., & Low-Beer, N. (2019) · Academic medicine : journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000002810 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
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“Although researchers may not completely agree on the mechanism involved in the learning effect of the testing experience, positive or negative, the cumulative evidence supports the notion that repeated forced retrieval of information/knowledge through MC testing overall, enhances long-term recall for most individuals…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialToppino, T. C., Lavan, M. H., & Iaconelli, R. (2018) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-018-0828-2 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“…to be greater when practice tests involve free recall or cued recall rather than recognition (but see Little & Bjork, 2012; Little, Bjork, Bjork, & Angello, 2012) and does not depend on the same format being used for both the practice and final tests (e.g., Carpenter & DeLosh, 2006; Glover, 1989).”
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“Despite robust and replicated findings, research in this domain has largely failed to translate into practice (Glover, 1989; Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, & Carpenter, 2007; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a).”
BackgroundResultComparing the merits of word writing and retrieval practice for L2 vocabulary learning
Candry, S., Decloedt, J., & Eyckmans, J. (2020) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2020.102206 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
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“Test‐enhanced” focused self‐directed learning after the teaching modules in biochemistry
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“Experiments showed that taking a test leads to better retention than restudying the material for an equivalent duration [1,10].”
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Cognition, Memory, and Education
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It matters how to recall – task differences in retrieval practice
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“Glover (1989), for example, compared restudy, cued recall, free-recall, and recognition, identifying differences between the tasks and free-recall to be most beneficial for learning.”
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Constructive multiple-choice testing system
Park, J. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01058.x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Learning in a new computerized testing system
Park, J. (2005) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.3.436 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
A Framework of Episodic Updating: An Account of Memory Updating After Retrieval
Finn, B. (2017) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2017.03.006 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Multiple-Choice and Short-Answer Quizzing on Equal Footing in the Classroom
McDaniel, M. A., & Little, J. L. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235631.020 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Effortful Retrieval Reduces Hippocampal Activity and Impairs Incidental Encoding
Reas, E. T., & Brewer, J. B. (2013) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.22096 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Psychological models of memory propose that encoding and retrieval can operate concurrently and may facilitate or compete with one another (Glover, 1989; Tulving and Thomson, 1973; Storm et al., 2006).”
Consequences of Testing Memory
Malmberg, K., Lehman, M., Annis, J. R., Criss, A., & Shiffrin, R. (2014) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800283-4.00008-3 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Emerging and Future Directions in Test-Enhanced Learning Research
Pan, S. C., Dunlosky, J., Xu, K. M., & Ouwehand, K. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09857-2 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“O t h e r a pp r o ac h e s a tt r ac ti ng i n c r ea s i ng i n t e r e s t i n c l ud e t e s t - p o t e n ti a t e d n e w l e a r n i ng o r f o r w a r d t e s ti ng ( w h e r e i n p r ac ti ce t e s ti ng l ea d s t o e nh a n ce d l ea r n i ng o f n e w m a t e r i a l s ) , a s w e ll a s p r e t e s ti ng…”
Grain size of recall practice for lengthy text material: fragile and mysterious effects on memory.
Wissman, K. T., & Rawson, K. A. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000047 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Retrieval Practice in Memory- and Language-Impaired Populations: A Systematic Review.
de Lima, M. D., Cavendish, B., de Deus, J. S., & Buratto, L. (2020) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acaa035 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“In such designs, the processing type is confounded with the processing time, which can prevent robust conclusions concerning the benefits of RP (see Glover, 1989).”
BackgroundResultEnhancing the quantity and accuracy of eyewitness memory via initial memory testing
Pansky, A., & Nemets, E. (2012) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2011.06.001 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
- Authors
- Glover, J. A.
- Affiliations
- Ball State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Glover, John A.
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 1989-09
- Volume
- 81
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 392-399
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2073855993
- Cited by
- 392
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 0.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- testing effect, retrieval practice, memory retention, student memories
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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