Repeated testing produces superior transfer of learning relative to repeated studying.
Abstract
The present research investigated whether test-enhanced learning can be used to promote transfer. More specifically, 4 experiments examined how repeated testing and repeated studying affected retention and transfer of facts and concepts. Subjects studied prose passages and then either repeatedly restudied or took tests on the material. One week later, they took a final test that had either the same questions (Experiment 1a), new inferential questions within the same knowledge domain (Experiments 1b and 2), or new inferential questions from different knowledge domains (Experiment 3). Repeated testing produced superior retention and transfer on the final test relative to repeated studying. This finding indicates that the mnemonic benefits of test-enhanced learning are not limited to the retention of the specific response tested during initial learning but rather extend to the transfer of knowledge in a variety of contexts.
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Repeated retrieval sessions with corrective feedback improve long-term retention.
“Regardless of the spacing, there is evidence to suggest that repeated retrieval sessions with corrective feedback improves long-term retention (Butler, 2010; Karpicke & Roediger, 2007b; Tse et al., 2010); for a review, see (Binks, 2018).”
From Does difficulty moderate learning? A comparative analysis of the desirable difficulties framework and cognitive load theory (2025) · cites this paper as Butler, 2010
Retrieval practice can enhance near transfer.
“The phenomenon of retrieval-induced facilitation has ties to the literature on transfer, which has shown that retrieval practice can enhance near transfer (Butler 2010, Kang et al. 2011, Rohrer et al. 2010).”
From Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning (2021) · cites this paper as Butler 2010
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“The author would like to thank Stephanie Karpicke for assistance with preparing the manuscript.”
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BackgroundThe testing effect in free recall is associated with enhanced organizational processes
Zaromb, F. M., & Roediger, H. L. (2010) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.38.8.995 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
McDermott, K. B., Agarwal, P. K., D'Antonio, L., Roediger, H. L., III, & McDaniel, M. A. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000004 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Retrieval-Based Learning: Active Retrieval Promotes Meaningful Learning
Karpicke, J. D. (2012) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Comparative effects of test‐enhanced learning and self‐explanation on long‐term retention
Larsen, D. P., Butler, A. C., & Roediger, H. L., III (2013) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.12141 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Actor-Oriented Transfer Perspective and Its Contributions to Educational Research and Practice
Lobato, J. (2012) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2012.693353 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
“, Butler, 2010; Butterfield & Nelson, 1991; Chen & Mo, 2004; Gentner et al., 2003; Rittle-Johnson, 2006). In contrast, AOT research assumes that people regularly generalize their learning experiences and finds the lack of transfer from the mainstream cognitive perspective understandable, given the large research base…”
MethodThe science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice
Carpenter, S. K., Pan, S. C., & Butler, A. C. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00089-1 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Self-citationTesting Enhances the Transfer of Learning
Carpenter, S. K. (2012) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721412452728 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
“The beneficial effect of tests on knowledge-based inferences was nicely demonstrated in a recent study by Butler (2010). After reading a text passage, participants either restudied it or completed an initial test on it (e.g., question: “Approximately how many bat species are there in the world?”; answer: “More than 1,…”
BackgroundInfluentialExplanation feedback is better than correct answer feedback for promoting transfer of learning.
Butler, A. C., Godbole, N. R., & Marsh, E. J. (2012) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031026 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“Six of the passages and the associated questions were adapted from A. C. Butler (2010), and the rest were created to match.”
BackgroundSelf-citationKarpicke, J. D., Lehman, M., & Aue, W. R. (2014) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800283-4.00007-1 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
“…has been substantiated to some degree by the finding that performance on a criterial test is best when the final test questions are identical to initial test questions (e.g., Butler, 2010; Johnson & Mayer, 2009; McDaniel & Fisher, 1991; see also Brewer, Marsh, Meeks, Clark-Foos, & Hicks, 2010).”
BackgroundResultQuizzing in Middle‐School Science: Successful Transfer Performance on Classroom Exams
McDaniel, M. A., Thomas, R. C., Agarwal, P. K., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L. (2013) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2914 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
“For instance, Butler (2010) found that subjects given a cued recall test (with feedback) on concepts (e.g., wing structure for bats and birds) performed better on questions requiring transfer of those concepts to new contexts (e.g., wing structure for military aircraft) than did subjects who…”
InfluentialRetrieval practice & Bloom’s taxonomy: Do students need fact knowledge before higher order learning?
Agarwal, P. K. (2018) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000282 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
“Recent research has found that rephrased quiz or test questions do not facilitate transfer to a greater extent than identical questions (Butler, 2010; Pan & Rickard, in press); thus, although rephrased questions would be ideal for examining the flexibility of learning, it is uncertain whether…”
BackgroundReflection as a strategy to foster medical students’ acquisition of diagnostic competence
Mamede, S., van Gog, T., Moura, A. S., de Faria, R. M. D., Peixoto, J. M., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & Schmidt, H. G. (2012) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2012.04217.x · Cited by 164 · see citing works
van Gog, T., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9310-x · Cited by 164 · see citing works
“…transfer (e.g., recalling a word in a sentence that differed from the word that had to be recalled from that same sentence on an initial test) or contained cues that were also present in the original text (i.e., corresponding words or terms) that would invite the correct answer (e.g., Butler 2010).”
A systemic framework for the progress test: Strengths, constraints and issues: AMEE Guide No. 71
Wrigley, W. J., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., Freeman, A., & Muijtjens, A. M. M. (2012) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.3109/0142159x.2012.704437 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Relational categories as a bridge between cognitive and educational research.
Goldwater, M. B., & Schalk, L. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000043 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
“Butler (2010) found that practicing retrieval increases analogical transfer, but he only tested with transfer problems that contained explicit retrieval cues.”
BackgroundMind wandering during lectures II: Relation to academic performance.
Wammes, J. D., Seli, P., Cheyne, J. A., Boucher, P. O., & Smilek, D. (2016) · Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology · doi:10.1037/stl0000055 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
The Changing Nature of Educational Assessment
Bennett, R. E. (2015) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x14554179 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“Furthermore, taking a test can, itself, help promote knowledge retention and transfer (Butler, 2010; Hinze, Wiley, & Pellegrino, 2013; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006; Rohrer & Pashler, 2010).”
BackgroundThe Testing Effect Is Alive and Well with Complex Materials
Karpicke, J. D., & Aue, W. R. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9309-3 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Brame, C. J., & Biel, R. (2015) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.14-11-0208 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“In a follow-up experiment described in the same report, Butler (2010) examined the effects of testing on students’ ability to transfer knowledge to a different domain, again comparing the effects of testing to restudy.”
BackgroundInfluentialAgarwal, P. K., Bain, P. M., & Chamberlain, R. W. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9210-2 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“In general, the set of applied experiments by McDaniel et al. demonstrates the “flexibility” or transfer of retrieval-based learning, even when quiz and final criterial items differ (see also Butler 2010).”
ResultPracticing Retrieval Facilitates Learning
McDermott, K. B. (2021) · Annual review of psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-051019 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Benefits from retrieval practice are greater for students with lower working memory capacity
Agarwal, P. K., Finley, J. R., Rose, N. S., & Roediger, H. L., III (2016) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2016.1220579 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“The use of retrieval practice as a learning strategy, by teachers and students, has been shown to increase students ’ long-term retention and transfer of knowledge to new situations (Agarwal, Bain, & Chamberlain, 2012; Butler, 2010).”
Larsen, D. P., Butler, A. C., Lawson, A. L., & Roediger, H. L., III (2012) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-012-9379-7 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“In addition, there is growing evidence to suggest that practicing retrieval can improve people’s understanding of the material, thereby facilitating subsequent application of that information to new contexts (e.g., Butler 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMamede, S., van Gog, T., Moura, A. S., de Faria, R. M. D., Maria, J. P., & Schmidt, H. G. (2013) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000000076 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Learning as a Generative Activity: Eight Learning Strategies that Promote Understanding
Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2015) · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Enhancing attention and memory during video-recorded lectures.
Schacter, D. L., & Szpunar, K. K. (2015) · Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology · doi:10.1037/stl0000011 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Rawson, K. A., & Dunlosky, J. T. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9203-1 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“Test-enhanced learning has been shown on many kinds of criterion measures, including those that primarily measure memory for the practiced items and those that primarily measure comprehension or application of the practiced items (e.g., Butler 2010; Johnson and Mayer 2009; McDaniel et al. 2009).”
BackgroundMethodA Test of the Testing Effect: Acquiring Problem‐Solving Skills From Worked Examples
van Gog, T., & Liesbeth Kester, A. (2012) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12002 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“the information provided in the materials (Butler, 2010; Johnson & Mayer, 2009), the focus on recalling knowledge of the solution procedure and then applying that knowledge to execute each step in the procedure constitutes a fundamental difference between learning from worked examples and learning the other kinds of m…”
BackgroundThe cognitive principles of learning underlying the 5E Model of Instruction
Martín, H. R., & Bybee, R. W. (2022) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-022-00337-z · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“However, the way students learn is equally important in that it determines the potential for transfer to occur (Butler, 2010).”
BackgroundThe hypercorrection effect persists over a week, but high-confidence errors return
Butler, A. C., Fazio, L. K., & Marsh, E. J. (2011) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0173-y · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“, Butler, 2010; see Roediger & Butler, 2011). Recent research by Fazio (2011) has suggested that this procedure might be highly effective.”
BackgroundSelf-citationNeurocognitive mechanisms of the “testing effect”: A review
van den Broek, G. S. E., Takashima, A., Wiklund‐Hörnqvist, C., Wirebring, L. K., Segers, E., Verhoeven, L. T. W., & Nyberg, L. H. (2016) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2016.05.001 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Enhancing learning by retrieval: Enriching free recall with elaborative prompting
Endres, T., Carpenter, S. K., Martin, A., & Renkl, A. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.11.010 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“We currently know much less about the power of retrieval to enhance the arguably more important outcomes of understanding and comprehension of complex, educationally-relevant learning contents (for discussions on this topic, see Butler, 2010; Carpenter, 2014; Pellegrino, 2012).”
BackgroundMeta-analyses of flipped classroom studies: A review of methodology
Hew, K. F., Bai, S., Dawson, P., & Lo, C. K. (2021) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2021.100393 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
A Classroom Study on the Relationship Between Student Achievement and Retrieval-Enhanced Learning
Carpenter, S. K., Lund, T. J. S., Coffman, C. R., Armstrong, P. I., Lamm, M. H., & Reason, R. D. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9311-9 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“…and Roediger 2008; Pyc and Rawson 2010; Toppino and Cohen 2009; Vaughn and Rawson 2011; Vaughn et al. 2013), text passages (Agarwal et al. 2008; Butler 2010; Clark and Svinicki 2014; Hinze and Wiley 2011; Kubik et al. 2014; Roediger and Karpicke 2006), and video-recorded lectures (Butler and…”
BackgroundDistributed retrieval practice promotes superior recall of anatomy information
Dobson, J. L., Perez, J., & Linderholm, T. (2016) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1668 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“…retrieval practice has been well-established for simple and complex materials (for a review see Karpicke and Aue, 2015) and in both laboratory (Butler, 2010; Karpicke and Blunt, 2011; Arnold and McDermott, 2013; Meyer and Logan, 2013; Blunt and Karpicke, 2014; Karpicke et al., 2014) and…”
Using Testing as a Learning Tool
Yang, B. W., Razo, J. F., & Persky, A. M. (2019) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.5688/ajpe7324 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“One laboratory study examined whether testing would help people transfer information about bat echolocation to a task about how submarines use sonar, which they were able to do successfully.(38) In the study noted previously that involved testing healthcare students using a pen and paper versus standardized patients,(…”
BackgroundWhat we measure … and what we should measure in medical education
Boulet, J. R., & Durning, S. J. (2018) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.13652 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Expectancy of an open-book test decreases performance on a delayed closed-book test
Agarwal, P. K., & Roediger, H. L., III (2011) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.613840 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“The results confirm the robust effects of initial tests on the transfer of knowledge (see Butler, 2010), as well as initial tests on delayed retention (Agarwal et al., 2008; Kang et al., 2007).”
BackgroundResultTesting the limits of testing effects using completion tests
Hinze, S. R., & Wiley, J. (2011) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.560121 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“That is, if availability of specific information in memory is a prerequisite for transfer, then any task that enhances the retrievability of this relevant information should lead to superior transfer (see Butler, 2010).”
BackgroundThe testing effect with authentic educational materials: A cautionary note
Wooldridge, C. L., Bugg, J., McDaniel, M., & Liu, Y. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.07.001 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
To What Extent Do Study Habits Relate to Performance?
Walck-Shannon, E. M., Rowell, S. F., & Frey, R. F. (2021) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.20-05-0091 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Our results support the finding that active, effortful strategies can be effective on a variety of cognitive levels (Butler, 2010; Karpicke and Blunt, 2011; Smith and Karpicke, 2014); and this work extends support of the desirable difficulties framework into biology by finding unique value for…”
A dual memory theory of the testing effect
Rickard, T. C., & Pan, S. C. (2017) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-017-1298-4 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Understanding the cognitive processes involved in writing to learn
Arnold, K. M., Umanath, S., Thio, K., Reilly, W. B., McDaniel, M. A., & Marsh, E. J. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000119 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“…not hundreds, of studies have shown that retrieving information from memory boosts retention (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a) and transfer of knowledge (Butler, 2010; Carpenter, 2012), and these effects have been demonstrated in classrooms as well as in the laboratory (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik, &…”
BackgroundTests enhance retention and transfer of spatial learning
Carpenter, S. K., & Kelly, J. W. (2012) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-012-0221-2 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“, Butler, 2010; Carpenter, Pashler, & Vul, 2006; Chan, 2010; Chan, McDermott, & Roediger, 2006; McDaniel, Anderson, Derbish, & Morrisette, 2007). In a recent study, Kang, McDaniel, and Pashler (2011) demonstrated that testing can enhance transfer of mathematical function learning. Participants learned the relationship…”
InfluentialCarpenter, S. K., Endres, T., & Hui, L. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09562-w · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“2008), text passages (Butler 2010; Hinze et al. 2013), and video-based materials (Butler and Roediger III 2007; Endres et al.”
Roelle, J., & Nückles, M. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000345 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy
Firth, J., Rivers, I., & Boyle, J. (2021) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.3266 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Improving Learning Efficiency of Factual Knowledge in Medical Education
Yeh, D. D., & Park, Y. S. (2015) · Journal of surgical education · doi:10.1016/j.jsurg.2015.03.012 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Hinze, S. R., & Rapp, D. N. (2014) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3032 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Multiple-choice testing as a desirable difficulty in the classroom.
Bjork, E. L., Little, J. L., & Storm, B. C. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.03.002 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
The benefits of testing for learning on later performance
McConnell, M., St‐Onge, C., & Young, M. E. (2014) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-014-9529-1 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Pop-up Questions Within Educational Videos: Effects on Students’ Learning
Haagsman, M. E., Scager, K., Boonstra, J. C., & Koster, M. (2020) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-020-09847-3 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“It is surprising that we did not find a direct testing effect for pop-up questions, since such an effect has been reported by several previous studies (Butler 2010; Glover 1989; Karpicke and Roediger 2008; Szpunar et al. 2008).”
ResultJape, D., Zhou, J., & Bullock, S. (2022) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-022-03324-8 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
The importance of constructive comprehension processes in learning from tests
Hinze, S. R., Wiley, J., & Pellegrino, J. W. (2013) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2013.03.002 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“A few experiments on learning from text have demonstrated benefits of retrieval attempts, with feedback and/or restudy, on these sorts of transfer tests (Butler, 2010; Karpicke & Blunt, 2011; McDaniel, Howard, & Einstein, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialDoes pre-testing promote better retention than post-testing?
Latimier, A., Riegert, A., Peyre, H., Ly, S. T., Casati, R., & Ramus, F. (2019) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-019-0053-1 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Learners and Luddites in the Twenty-first Century
Martinelli, S. M., Isaak, R. S., Schell, R. M., Mitchell, J., McEvoy, M. D., & Chen, F. (2019) · Anesthesiology · doi:10.1097/aln.0000000000002827 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Insights From the Science of Learning Can Inform Evidence-Based Implementation of Peer Instruction
Schell, J. A., & Butler, A. C. (2018) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2018.00033 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Retrieval practice has been shown to improve long-term retention (e.g., Larsen et al., 2013) and transfer of learning to new contexts (e.g., Butler, 2010; for review see Carpenter, 2012).”
BackgroundSelf-citationExplaining individual student success using continuous assessment types and student characteristics
Day, I. N. Z., van Blankenstein, F. M., Westenberg, P. M., & Admiraal, W. (2018) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2018.1466868 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“According to Butler (2010), the testing effect also extends to final assessments with new information, denoting a transfer of knowledge.”
BackgroundMethodTaking the sting out of assessment: is there a role for progress testing?
Pugh, D., & Regehr, G. (2016) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.12985 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The Testing Effect for Learning Principles and Procedures from Texts
Dirkx, K., Liesbeth Kester, A., & Kirschner, P. A. (2014) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2013.823370 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“…facts, definitions, and concepts), has namely shown that frequent testing, more variation in test questions/problems, and more time for schema construction bolsters the testing effect—even without taking too much time away from classroom instruction (e.g., Butler, 2010; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe effects of test-enhanced learning on long-term retention in AAN annual meeting courses
Larsen, D. P., Butler, A. C., Aung, W. Y., Corboy, J. R., Friedman, D. I., & Sperling, M. R. (2015) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000001264 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of mediator strength in learning from retrieval
Carpenter, S. K., & Yeung, K. L. (2016) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2016.06.008 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“…2011; Vaughn, Rawson, & Pyc, 2013; Zaromb & Roediger, 2010), to more complex phrases and text passages (Agarwal, Karpicke, Kang, Roediger, & McDermott, 2008; Butler, 2010; Hinze & Wiley, 2011; Hinze, Wiley, & Pellegrino, 2013; Kubik, Söderlund, Nilsson, & Jönsson, 2014; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).”
BackgroundWinn, A. S., DelSignore, L. A., Marcus, C. H., Chiel, L. E., Freiman, E., Stafford, D. E. J., & Newman, L. R. (2019) · MedEdPORTAL · doi:10.15766/mep_2374-8265.10850 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Testing can counteract proactive interference by integrating competing information
Wahlheim, C. N. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0455-5 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…(Chan, McDermott, & Roediger, 2006), the classification of novel exemplars of earlier-studied natural categories (Jacoby, Wahlheim, & Coane, 2010), knowledgebased inferences (Butler, 2010), and transfer of rules to novel materials within the same knowledge domain (Kang, McDaniel, & Pashler, 2011).”
Investigating the testing effect: Retrieval as a characteristic of effective study strategies
Bae, C. L. L., Therriault, D. J., & Redifer, J. L. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.12.008 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Guided retrieval practice of educational materials using automated scoring.
Grimaldi, P. J., & Karpicke, J. D. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033208 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The double-edged sword of memory retrieval
Roediger, H. L., III, & Abel, M. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00115-2 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“In addition, retrieval (relative to rereading) sometimes leads to greater transfer when the same information is needed in a novel circumstance 15,16 , although not always 17,18 .”
BackgroundExtending Cognition to External Agents
Nestojko, J. F., Finley, J. R., & Roediger, H. L., III (2013) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2013.844056 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Butler, A. C. (2010). Repeated testing produces superior transfer of learning relative to repeated studying. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 1118–1133. Carpenter, S. K. (2012). Testing enhances the transfer of learning.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRetrieval practice and elaborative encoding benefit memory in younger and older adults.
Coane, J. H. (2013) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2013.04.001 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Retrieval Practice Benefits Deductive Inference
Eglington, L. G., & Kang, S. H. K. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-016-9386-y · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Also, Butler (2010) found that repeated retrieval practice could promote transfer to test questions that were related to, but different from, originally practiced materials (e.g., learning about the aerodynamics of bat wings and answering questions about the design of airplanes on the final test).”
BackgroundResultEbersbach, M., Feierabend, M., & Nazari, K. B. B. (2020) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3639 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Minimizing interference with early consolidation boosts 7-day retention in amnesic patients.
Alber, J., Sala, S. D., & Dewar, M. (2014) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000091 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Morphew, J., da Silva, M. R., Herman, G. L., & West, M. (2019) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3605 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Dobson, J. L. (2013) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00174.2012 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Shrestha, P. (2016) · Journal of English for Academic Purposes · doi:10.1016/j.jeap.2016.10.002 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“A large number of studies (e.g., Butler, 2010; Butler, Godbole, & Marsh, 2013; Foley & Kaiser, 2013; MacRae & Skinner, 2011; Thompson, Brooks, & Lizárraga, 2003) have been carried out in education and psychology in order to understand the nature of transfer with regard to learning over the last…”
BackgroundTesting prepares students to learn better: The forward effect of testing in category learning.
Lee, H. S., & Ahn, D. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000211 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“…test (or retrieval practice) of previously studied information, learners generally perform better on a delayed memory task than those who studied the same material twice without a test (e.g., Butler, 2010; McDaniel & Fisher, 1991; Mcdaniel, Roediger, & McDermott, 2007; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a).”
Price, D. W., Wang, T., O’Neill, T. R., Morgan, Z. J., Chodavarapu, P., Bazemore, A., Peterson, L. E., & Newton, W. P. (2024) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000005856 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Retrieval practice: the lack of transfer to deductive inferences
Tran, R., Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2014) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0646-x · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Butler (2010) found better performance on inference test questions for items that had been tested.”
BackgroundMethodResultTest-enhanced learning in third-grade children
Jaeger, A., Eisenkraemer, R. E., & Stein, L. M. (2014) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.963030 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“In line with prior studies (e.g. Butler, 2010; Butler & Roediger, 2008; Carpenter et al., 2009; Halamish & Bjork, 2011; Karpicke & Roediger, 2007; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006), and especially with studies recruiting children as participants (Carpenter et al., 2009; McDaniel et al., 2011; Roediger et…”
BackgroundResultTransfer: A Review for Biology and the Life Sciences
Kaminske, A. N., Kuepper-Tetzel, C. E., Nebel, C. L., Sumeracki, M. A., & Ryan, S. P. (2020) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.19-11-0227 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“To transfer a concept from one context to another, a student must first recognize that the previous knowledge is relevant, then recall that knowledge accurately, and finally apply the previous knowledge to the new context (Barnett and Ceci, 2002; Butler, 2010; Wooldridge et al., 2014; Sumeracki et al., 2019).”
BackgroundOpt Out: An Examination of Issues
Bennett, R. E. (2016) · ETS Research Report Series · doi:10.1002/ets2.12101 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Taking a well-designed practice test can, itself, help promote knowledge retention and transfer and do so more effectively than common approaches to studying (Butler, 2010; Hinze, Wiley, & Pellegrino, 2013; Paul, 2015; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006; Rohrer & Pashler, 2010).”
BackgroundTesting enhances learning: A review of the literature
Binks, S. (2018) · Journal of Professional Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.profnurs.2017.08.008 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
- Authors
- Butler, A. C.
- Affiliations
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- Corresponding author
- Butler, Andrew C.
- ORCID
- Butler, Andrew C.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2010
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1118-1133
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2115033623
- Cited by
- 492
- References
- 92
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 12.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- James S. McDonnell Foundation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- retrieval practice, retesting, transfer of learning, retention, inferential questions, knowledge domains
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Analysis of Variance, Cues, Humans, Learning, Practice, Psychological, Mental Recall, Retention, Psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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