The DOI matches its Crossref record; 117 of the 117 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information.
Abstract
In this article we propose mechanisms that govern the processing of emotional information, particularly those involved in fear eduction. Emotions are viewed as represented by information structures in memory, and anxiety is thought to occur when an information structure that serves as program to escape or avoid danger is activated. Emotional processing is defined as the modification of memory structures that underlie emotions. It is argued that some form of exposure to feared situations is common to many ps chotherapies for anxiety, and that confrontation with feared objects or situations is an effective treatment. Physiological activation and habituation within and across exposure ession are cited as indicators ofemotional processing, and variables that influence activation and habituation of fear responses are examined. These variables and theindicators are analyzed to yield an account of what information must be integrated for emotional processing of a fear structure. The elements of such a structure are vi wed as cognitive representations of the stimulus characteristic of the fear situation, the individual's responses in it, and aspects of its meaning for the individual. Treatment failures are interpreted with respect to the interference of cognitive defenses, autonomic arousal, mood state, and erroneous ideation with reformation of targeted fear structures. Applications of the concepts advanced here to therapeutic practice and to th broader study of psychopathology arediscussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“WSH is considered a necessary pre-requisite for the second piece of incompatible information, which derives from between-session habituation (BSH) over repeated occasions of exposure.”
From Does habituation matter? Emotional processing theory and exposure therapy for acrophobia (2010) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“BSH is purported to form the basis for long term learning, and to be mediated by changes in the meaning proposition, in the form of lowered probability of harm (i.e., risk) and lessened negativity (i.e., valence) of the stimulus.”
From Does habituation matter? Emotional processing theory and exposure therapy for acrophobia (2010) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“According to this theory, interfering anxiety is acquired when a neutral stimulus is paired with a fear response and generalized via classical conditioning; anxiety is then maintained over time by the negative reinforcement of avoidance behaviors that decrease anxiety in the short-term but interfere with natural extinction of the conditioned fear [76, 77].”
From Intolerance of Uncertainty and Parental Accommodation: Promising Targets for Personalized Intervention for Youth Anxiety. (2020) · cites this paper as [76]
In the citing paper
“If one or both of these domains do not demonstrate reactivity to an emotional stimulus, the full fear structure has not been accessed and habituation is unlikely.”
From A novel theory of experiential avoidance in generalized anxiety disorder: A review and synthesis of research supporting a contrast avoidance model of worry (2011) · cites this paper as Foa and Kozak (1986)
In the citing paper
“According to Foa and Kozak (1986), however, a demonstration of emotional processing requires reactivity upon exposure at both subjective and physiological levels.”
From A novel theory of experiential avoidance in generalized anxiety disorder: A review and synthesis of research supporting a contrast avoidance model of worry (2011) · cites this paper as Foa and Kozak (1986)
In the citing paper
“a crucial component of the Contrast Avoidance Model, as noted throughout the paper and based on Foa and Kozak (1986), states that the absence of emotional contrast during exposure may itself fail to produce the emotional processing necessary to reduce fear associations.”
From A novel theory of experiential avoidance in generalized anxiety disorder: A review and synthesis of research supporting a contrast avoidance model of worry (2011) · cites this paper as Foa and Kozak (1986)
In the citing paper
“Habituation theory has long been the primary theoretical basis of exposure therapy and has been integral to theories of exposure such as emotional processing theory (Foa & Kozak, 1986).”
From Are within- and between-session changes in distress associated with treatment outcomes? Findings from two clinical trials of exposure for eating disorders (2024) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“Initial fear activation is thought to be an indication that the exposure is appropriately targeting the core fear.”
From Are within- and between-session changes in distress associated with treatment outcomes? Findings from two clinical trials of exposure for eating disorders (2024) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“This pattern partially matches the assumptions of emotional processing theory, which posits that there should be an initial peak in fear during exposure (i.e., initial fear activation; Foa & Kozak, 1986).”
From Are within- and between-session changes in distress associated with treatment outcomes? Findings from two clinical trials of exposure for eating disorders (2024) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“This finding opposes the assumptions of emotional processing theory, which posits that within-session decreases in distress represent a consolidation of learning during the session and allow for the integration of new information into fear structures (Foa & Kozak, 1986).”
From Are within- and between-session changes in distress associated with treatment outcomes? Findings from two clinical trials of exposure for eating disorders (2024) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“As defined by Foa and Kozak (1986), emotional processing is the course by which new information is introduced into an existing fear structure in order to change emotional responding.”
From Does change in distress matter? Mechanisms of change in prolonged exposure for PTSD (2014) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“as well as within-session habituation (e.g., Borkovec & Sides, 1979; Foa & Kozak, 1986, 1997; Grayson et al., 1982; Kozak, Foa, & Steketee, 1998; Lang, Melamed, & Hart, 1970; Watson & Marks, 1971)”
From Does change in distress matter? Mechanisms of change in prolonged exposure for PTSD (2014) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“This argues against theories that purport necessity of between-session habituation as a key therapeutic mechanism (Foa & Kozak, 1986; Rachman, 1980).”
From Does change in distress matter? Mechanisms of change in prolonged exposure for PTSD (2014) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“habitual thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and goals are easily activated automatically, pulling us toward common well-worn directions as opposed to being sensitive to the unique hedonic or utilitarian value of acting differently (Aarts & Dijksterhuis, 2000; Foa & Kozak, 1986).”
From Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health (2010) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“PE is based on emotional processing theory (Foa and Kozak, 1985, 1986), which suggests that traumatic events are not processed emotionally at the time of the event.”
From Treating PTSD: A Review of Evidence-Based Psychotherapy Interventions (2018) · cites this paper as Foa and Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“According to cognitive-behavioral theories of PTSD, negative attributions regarding the cause and meaning of trauma (e.g., self-blame, the world is dangerous) and avoidance of trauma reminders (e.g., thoughts/feelings associated with the assault, situations that remind the individuals of the assault) prevent natural recovery from PTSD symptoms (Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Foa & Kozak, 1986; Foa et al.,”
From PTSD in the Year Following Sexual Assault: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies (2023) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“For these reasons, exposure therapy is often thought to rely on other processes such as habituation [46], UCS revaluation [56], or contextualization [7].”
From Memory and Forgetting (2018) · cites this paper as [46]
In the citing paper
“One prominent rationale for prolonged exposure suggested the mechanism was initial fear activation followed by habituation of fear within and between treatment sessions [46], but the evidence for this is weak [47, 48].”
From Memory and Forgetting (2018) · cites this paper as [46]
In the citing paper
“What these have in common is that the treatment targets problematic aspects of the trauma memory, whether by techniques such as exposure (Foa & Kozak, 1986), restructuring (Ehlers & Clark, 2000), or dual-task interference (Van den Hout & Engelhard, 2012).”
From Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application (2019) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“According to the cognitive model of OCD [6–8], emotional processing theory [9], and Wells’ metacognitive model [10–12], dysfunctional beliefs play an important role in the development as well as maintenance of OCD.”
From Metacognitive Training for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A study protocol for a randomized controlled trial (2020) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Even more relevant, the behavioral treatment of anxiety by exposure is based on the idea that during exposure, the patient first exhibits a steady increase in physiological activation, anxiety, and arousal, which then should be resolved during later stages of exposure through processing of fear-incompatible experience (Foa & Kozak, 1986).”
From The psychophysiology of blood-injection-injury phobia: Looking beyond the diphasic response paradigm (2010) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“EPT purports that exposure is maximal when (1) fear is activated (IFA), (2) fear subsides within sessions (WSH), and (3) fear subsides between sessions (BSH).”
From Does habituation matter? Emotional processing theory and exposure therapy for acrophobia (2010) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“EPT purports that exposure is maximal when (1) fear is activated (IFA), (2) fear subsides within sessions (WSH), and (3) fear subsides between sessions (BSH).”
From Does habituation matter? Emotional processing theory and exposure therapy for acrophobia (2010) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“EPT purports that the effects of exposure therapy derive from activation of a ‘fear structure’ and integration of information that is incompatible with it, resulting in the development of a non-fear structure that replaces (Foa & Kozak, 1986) or competes with (Foa & McNally, 1996) the original one.”
From Does habituation matter? Emotional processing theory and exposure therapy for acrophobia (2010) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“EPT purports that exposure is maximal when (1) fear is activated (IFA), (2) fear subsides within sessions (WSH), and (3) fear subsides between sessions (BSH).”
From Does habituation matter? Emotional processing theory and exposure therapy for acrophobia (2010) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“‘Intrusive memories’—typically of emotional events—are a form of involuntary recall and have been theorized to play a critical role in the development and maintenance of various psychological disorders [24–29], such as PTSD, and also including depression [30,31], bipolar disorder [32,33], social anxiety [34], agoraphobia [35], spider phobia [36] and health anxiety [37].”
From Multiple memory systems, multiple time points: How science can inform treatment to control the expression of unwanted emotional memories (2018) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“These acute stressors have been shown to exacerbate fear responding across the lifespan (Bremner et al., 2005; Teicher et al., 2003), including emotional, cognitive, and behavioral forms of avoidance (Foa & Kozak, 1986; Marx & Sloan, 2002)”
From A transdiagnostic minority stress treatment approach for gay and bisexual men's syndemic health conditions (2015) · cites this paper as Foa & Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“effective fear extinction is the foundation of PE treatment (Foa and Kozak, 1986; Rothbaum and Davis, 2003; Smith et al., 2017).”
From Augmenting Prolonged Exposure therapy for PTSD with intranasal oxytocin: a randomized, placebo-controlled pilot trial (2018) · cites this paper as Foa and Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“Thus, PTSD may manifest from a persisting conditioned fear response independent of the original trauma and difficulty learning that stimuli previously associated with a trauma are no longer so.”
From D-cycloserine augmentation of exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot randomized clinical trial (2014) · cites this paper as Foa and Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“In humans with PTSD, the matrix of sensory stimuli embedded in the traumatic memory serve as cues that evoke a conditioned fear response in the absence of the original trauma (the unconditioned aversive stimuli).”
From D-cycloserine augmentation of exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot randomized clinical trial (2014) · cites this paper as Foa and Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“Individuals with PTSD have not learned that the stimuli associated with their trauma are now safe.”
From D-cycloserine augmentation of exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot randomized clinical trial (2014) · cites this paper as Foa and Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“One novel treatment approach follows from the hypothesis that PTSD is a disorder of emotional learning (Foa and Kozak, 1986).”
From D-cycloserine augmentation of exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot randomized clinical trial (2014) · cites this paper as Foa and Kozak, 1986
In the citing paper
“This finding seems plausible as real life anxiety-related cues can much easier activate anxiety reactions in individuals with an anxiety disorder than in individuals without an anxiety disorder [11].”
From A Meta-Analysis on the Relationship between Self-Reported Presence and Anxiety in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders (2014) · cites this paper as [11]
Citations
Cites
Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes.
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.3.231 · Cited by 11,317
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1978) · Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0146-6402(78)90002-4 · Cited by 10,586
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed
Cooper, A. M., & Michels, R. (1981) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.138.1.128 · Cited by 7,419
Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation.
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.87.1.49 · Cited by 7,121
The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit formation
Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908) · Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology · doi:10.1002/cne.920180503 · Cited by 6,911
Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 6,181
Paivio, A. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315798868 · Cited by 4,184
Bower, G. H. (1981) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.36.2.129 · Cited by 4,154
Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change
Garfield, S. L., Bergin, A. E., & Dryden, W. (1987) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.1.4.264a · Cited by 3,998
Habituation: a model phenomenon for the study of neuronal substrates of behavior
Thompson, R. F., & Spencer, W. A. (1966) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0022681 · Cited by 2,608 · cited 1×
“consistent with the Thompson and Spencer (1966) usage of the term:”
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–590 of 590
Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders
Steinman, S. A., Wootton, B. M., & Tolin, D. F. (2016) · Encyclopedia of Mental Health · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-397045-9.00266-4 · Cited by 27
Disturbed dreaming and emotion dysregulation
Levin, R., Fireman, G., & Nielsen, T. (2010) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2010.01.006 · Cited by 26
Innovations in the delivery of exposure and response prevention for obsessive-compulsive disorder
Patel, S. R., Comer, J., & Simpson, H. B. (2021) · Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2020_202 · Cited by 24
Sabourin, B. C., Watt, M. C., Krigolson, O. E., & Stewart, S. H. (2016) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.30.2.131 · Cited by 26
Katz, C., Tsur, N., Talmon, A., & Nicolet, R. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104905 · Cited by 26
Wangelin, B. C., Powers, M. B., Smits, J. A. J., & Tuerk, P. W. (2013) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2013.08.003 · Cited by 26
Effects of clinician-assisted emotional disclosure for sexual assault survivors: a pilot study
Anderson, T., Fende Guajardo, J., Luthra, R., & Edwards, K. M. (2010) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260509340542 · Cited by 26
Rossouw, J., Yadin, E., Alexander, D., Mbanga, I., Jacobs, T., & Seedat, S. (2016) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-016-1677-6 · Cited by 26
“PE is a theory-driven treatment that is based on Emotional Processing Theory [16] which conceptualises chronic PTSD as a failure to process the traumatic memory due to a strong tendency to avoid trauma reminders and the consequential erroneous beliefs about the world being extremely dangerous and about the self as bei…”
BackgroundBrundage, S. B., Brinton, J. M., & Hancock, A. B. (2016) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2016.10.001 · Cited by 26
Hypnotizability, Posttraumatic Stress, and Depressive Symptoms in Metastatic Breast Cancer
Keuroghlian, A. S., Butler, L. D., Neri, E., & Spiegel, D. (2009) · International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis · doi:10.1080/00207140903310790 · Cited by 26
New Directions in Virtual Reality-Based Therapy for Anxiety Disorders
David, D., Matu, S.-A., & David, O. A. (2013) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2013.6.2.114 · Cited by 25
Exploring DBT skills training as a treatment avenue for generalized anxiety disorder
Malivoire, B. L. (2020) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/cpsp.12339 · Cited by 25
Zilcha-Mano, S., & Webb, C. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.609585 · Cited by 25
Efficacy of an acceptance-based group behavioral therapy for generalized anxiety disorder.
Almeida Sampaio, T. P., Jorge, R. C., Martins, D. S., Gandarela, L. M., Hayes‐Skelton, S., Bernik, M. A., & Lotufo‐Neto, F. (2020) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23021 · Cited by 23
Newman, M. G., Lafreniere, L. S., & Jacobson, N. C. (2018) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2016.1253891 · Cited by 21
Petrova, K., Nevarez, M. D., Waldinger, R. J., Preacher, K. J., & Schulz, M. S. (2021) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01559-4 · Cited by 21
Hoffman, S. N., Rassaby, M. M., Stein, M. B., & Taylor, C. T. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.01.086 · Cited by 22
Wood, D. P., Webb-Murphy, J., Center, K., McLay, R., Koffman, R., Johnston, S., Spira, J., Pyne, J. M., & Wiederhold, B. K. (2009) · Military Medicine · doi:10.7205/milmed-d-03-4408 · Cited by 22
Claudat, K., Reilly, E. E., Convertino, A. D., Trim, J., Cusack, A., & Kaye, W. H. (2022) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/s40519-022-01500-9 · Cited by 21
“Based on Emotional Processing Theory [15], the client participates in in-vivo and imaginal exposures to approach trauma-related memories, feelings, and triggers that have been avoided.”
BackgroundSchultz, L. T., Heimberg, R. G., Rodebaugh, T. L., Schneier, F. R., Liebowitz, M. R., & Telch, M. J. (2006) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.06.001 · Cited by 21
Grumet, R., & Fitzpatrick, M. (2016) · Journal of Psychotherapy Integration · doi:10.1037/a0039633 · Cited by 20
Virtual reality exposure therapy for reducing school anxiety in adolescents: Pilot study
Beele, G., Liesong, P., Bojanowski, S., Hildebrand, K., Weingart, M., Asbrand, J., Correll, C. U., Morina, N., & Uhlhaas, P. J. (2024) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/56235 · Cited by 20
Rattel, J. A., Miedl, S. F., Liedlgruber, M., Blechert, J., Seidl, E., & Wilhelm, F. H. (2020) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2020.103761 · Cited by 18
Utility of Psychophysiological Metrics in Guiding Treatment of Trauma Symptoms: A Systematic Review
Yang, M., Mady, N., & Linnaranta, O. (2021) · Journal of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.jbct.2021.01.004 · Cited by 18
Neuromodulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder
Aronson, J. P., Katnani, H. A., & Eskandar, E. N. (2014) · Neurosurgery Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.nec.2013.08.003 · Cited by 18
Matthews, A., Naran, N., & Kirkby, K. C. (2015) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.12.003 · Cited by 18
Miegel, F., Demiralay, C., Moritz, S., Wirtz, J., Hottenrott, B., & Jelinek, L. (2020) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-020-02648-3 · Cited by 18
Curreri, A. J., Farchione, T. J., Sauer-Zavala, S., & Barlow, D. H. (2022) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445520947662 · Cited by 15
Wilker, S., Kleim, B., Geiling, A., Pfeiffer, A., Elbert, T., & Kolassa, I.-T. (2017) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702617719946 · Cited by 17
Virtual Reality Interventions for Mental Health
Kothgassner, O. D., Reichmann, A., & Bock, M. M. (2023) · Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2023_419 · Cited by 19
Serrano-Ibáñez, E. R., Ruiz-Párraga, G. T., Gómez-Pérez, L., Ramírez-Maestre, C., Esteve, R., & López-Martínez, A. E. (2021) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2020.1869647 · Cited by 17
Stephenson, K. R., Truong, L., & Shimazu, L. (2018) · The Journal of Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2018.07.014 · Cited by 17
Exposure Therapy and Its Mechanisms
Hamlett, G. E., Foa, E. B., & Brown, L. A. (2023) · Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2023_428 · Cited by 16
Self-citationUsing computational models of learning to advance cognitive behavioral therapy
Berwian, I. M., Hitchock, P., Pisupati, S., Schoen, G., & Niv, Y. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00251-4 · Cited by 16
Wang, S., Kim, Y., Yeon, B., Lee, H., Kweon, Y., Lee, C. T., & Lee, K. (2013) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.12039 · Cited by 15
The Role of Safety Behaviors in Panic Disorder Treatment: Self-Regulation or Self-Defeat?
Aafjes-van Doorn, K., Zilcha-Mano, S., Graham, K., Caldari, A., Barber, J. P., Chambless, D. L., & Milrod, B. (2019) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-019-09432-9 · Cited by 15
Lang, T., Helbig-Lang, S., Gloster, A. T., Richter, J., Hamm, A. O., Fehm, L., Fydrich, T., Gerlach, A. L., Ströhle, A., Alpers, G. W., et al. (2012) · Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1026/1616-3443/a000139 · Cited by 15
Marques, L., Kaufman, R. E., LeBeau, R. T., Moshier, S. J., Otto, M. W., Pollack, M. H., & Simon, N. M. (2009) · CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2009.00080.x · Cited by 14
Zang, Y., Su, Y., McLean, C. P., & Foa, E. B. (2019) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22412 · Cited by 14
Self-citation(2017) · REVISTA ARGENTINA DE CLINICA PSICOLOGICA · doi:10.24205/03276716.2017.1001 · Cited by 14
Wadsworth, L. P., & Hayes-Skelton, S. A. (2020) · Neurology Psychiatry and Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.npbr.2019.11.001 · Cited by 12
Woodward, M. J., Orengo-Aguayo, R., Stewart, R. W., & Rheingold, A. A. (2020) · Clinical Case Studies · doi:10.1177/1534650119881787 · Cited by 13
Ito, D., Watanabe, A., & Osawa, K. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01521-0 · Cited by 11
Advances in psychotherapy for generalized anxiety disorder.
Garfinkle, E. J., & Behar, E. (2012) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-012-0263-1 · Cited by 12
Self‐Monitoring of Reexperiencing Symptoms: A Randomized Trial
Brown, A. J., Bollini, A. M., Craighead, L. W., Astin, M. C., Norrholm, S. D., & Bradley, B. (2014) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.21950 · Cited by 11
Inhibitory Learning during Exposure Treatment in Anorexia Nervosa: A Practical Guide
Melles, H., Duijvis, S., & Jansen, A. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13050370 · Cited by 11
Chaudhury, S., Samantaray, N., & Singh, P. (2018) · Industrial Psychiatry Journal · doi:10.4103/ipj.ipj_35_18 · Cited by 11
Eilert, N., Timulak, L., Duffy, D., Earley, C., Enrique, A., Kennedy, P., McCormack, C., Palacios, J., Wogan, R., & Richards, D. (2022) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2619 · Cited by 11
“…evidence-based techniques and strategies implemented in CBT now stretch from behavioural techniques like activity scheduling and exposure (Foa & Kozak, 1986; Lewinsohn & Graf, 1973) and cognitive techniques like cognitive restructuring and distancing (Beck & Clark, 1997; Zettle & Hayes,…”
MethodGeneralized Anxiety Disorder: Targeting Intolerance of Uncertainty
Robichaud, M. (2013) · CBT for Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1002/9781118330043.ch3 · Cited by 10
Pinto-Gouveia, J., Carvalho, T., Cunha, M., Duarte, J., & Walser, R. D. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.06.023 · Cited by 11
Man, S. S., Li, X., Lin, X. J., Lee, Y.-C., & Chan, A. H. S. (2025) · International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2434957 · Cited by 10
Reitmaier, J., Schiller, A., Mühlberger, A., Pfaller, M., Meyer, M., & Shiban, Y. (2022) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12363 · Cited by 9
Schultz, J., Baumeister, A., Schmotz, S., Moritz, S., & Jelinek, L. (2023) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-023-07536-1 · Cited by 8
Stevens, E. S., Jendrusina, A. A., Sarapas, C., & Behar, E. (2014) · The Wiley Handbook of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1002/9781118775349.ch21 · Cited by 9
Kuckertz, J. M., Najmi, S., Baer, K., & Amir, N. (2023) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445519841055 · Cited by 9
Health Anxiety: A Cognitive-Behavioral Framework
Rutter, L., Nota, J. A., Yusufov, M., & Björgvinsson, T. (2018) · Somatoform and Other Psychosomatic Disorders · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89360-0_11 · Cited by 8
Separation Anxiety Symptom Profiles and Parental Accommodation Across Pediatric Anxiety Disorders
Phillips, K. E., Norris, L. A., & Kendall, P. C. (2020) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-019-00949-7 · Cited by 8
Imaginal Exposure for Disordered Eating Related Fears: An Initial Randomized Controlled Trial
Butler, R. M., & Heimberg, R. G. (2023) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/01454455221091783 · Cited by 8
Acceptance-Based Behavioral Therapies for Anxiety
Orsillo, S. M., Roemer, L., & Holowka, D. W. (2007) · Series in Anxiety and Related Disorders · doi:10.1007/0-387-25989-9_1 · Cited by 9
Mancusi, L., & McKay, D. (2021) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102366 · Cited by 8
An integrated existential framework for trauma theory
Wilmshurst, K. (2021) · Canadian Social Work Review · doi:10.7202/1075115ar · Cited by 7
Psychological Models and Treatments of OCD for Adults
Berman, N. C., Schwartz, R., & Park, J. (2017) · The Wiley Handbook of Obsessive Compulsive Disorders · doi:10.1002/9781118890233.ch12 · Cited by 8
Editorial: The Use of Virtual-Reality Interventions in Reducing Anxiety
Premkumar, P., Heym, N., Anderson, P. L., Brown, D., & Sumich, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2022.853678 · Cited by 7
Neudeck, P., & Lang, T. (2020) · Klinische Psychologie & Psychotherapie · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61814-1_26 · Cited by 7
Wheaton, M. G., Schwartz, M. R., Pascucci, O., & Simpson, H. B. (2015) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/00485713-20150602-05 · Cited by 7
Towards a unified worry exposure protocol for generalised anxiety disorder: A pilot study
McIntosh, C., & Crino, R. (2013) · Behaviour Change · doi:10.1017/bec.2013.19 · Cited by 6
Applying Exposure Therapy with Children
Schneider, S., Pflug, V., & Lavallee, K. L. (2022) · Clinical Guide to Exposure Therapy · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-04927-9_12 · Cited by 7
Treatment of a Case Example With PTSD and Chronic Pain
Shipherd, J. C. (2006) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2005.03.003 · Cited by 6
Prolonged Exposure Therapy for Experiential Avoidance: A Case-Series Study
Ghafoori, B. (2018) · Clinical Case Studies · doi:10.1177/1534650118766660 · Cited by 6
Katz, B. A., Breznitz, H., & Yovel, I. (2019) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2018.12.001 · Cited by 6
Seinsche, R. J., Fricke, S., Neudert, M. K., Zimmer, R. I., Stark, R., & Hermann, A. (2024) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000539402 · Cited by 6
Rifkin, L. S., Schofield, C. A., Beard, C., & Armstrong, T. (2016) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2016.08.013 · Cited by 6
Thampy, M., Sudhir, P. M., Kumar, A., Kashyap, H., Balachander, S., Narayanaswamy, J. C., & Reddy, Y. C. J. (2026) · Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1177/02537176251347929 · Cited by 5
Exposure and Response Prevention in OCD: A Framework to Capitalize Change
Faustino, D., Gonçalves, M. M., Braga, R., Faria, M. J., & Oliveira, J. T. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23797 · Cited by 5
Mechanisms of Action in the Treatment of Social Anxiety Disorder
Otto, M. W., Safren, S. A., & Hearon, B. A. (2014) · Social Anxiety · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394427-6.00027-3 · Cited by 5
Generalization of the effects of exposure treatments for phobias: A single case study
Persons, J. B. (1986) · Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training · doi:10.1037/h0085583 · Cited by 4
Pharmacological Treatment of Cognitive Dysfunction in Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Venero, C. (2015) · Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-417042-1.00010-3 · Cited by 4
Woodruff, S. C., Arnkoff, D. B., Glass, C. R., & Hindman, R. K. (2014) · The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Mindfulness · doi:10.1002/9781118294895.ch37 · Cited by 3
Sauer, K. S., Bailer, J., Jungmann, S. M., & Witthöft, M. (2023) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2022.08.001 · Cited by 3
A Comparison between Psychosocial and Pharmacological Treatments
Powers, M. B., Kauffman, B. Y., Diamond, A., & Smits, J. A. J. (2014) · Social Anxiety · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394427-6.00026-1 · Cited by 3
Double conflicts model and anxiety ratification therapy hypotheses of obsessive-compulsive disorder
Zhang, Z.-M., Zhang, Z.-L., & Li, H. (2010) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2010.07.039 · Cited by 3
Caiado, B., Canavarro, M. C., Pereira, A. I., & Moreira, H. (2024) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-023-10102-3 · Cited by 3
“…face previously avoided situations/stimuli) and dysfunctional beliefs through the integration of corrective information and fear memory (pathological fear structure), which disconfirms the patho - logical, unrealistic associations, further decreasing fear (Foa & Kozak, 1986; Richard et al., 2007).”
Faustino, B., Vasco, A. B., Farinha‐Fernandes, A., Delgado, J., Guerreiro, J. C., & Matos, M. (2022) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2736 · Cited by 3
Butler, R. M., Christian, C., Girard, J. M., Vanzhula, I. A., & Levinson, C. A. (2024) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2024.104577 · Cited by 1
Merging Acceptance and Commitment Therapy with Exposure Exercises to Treat Social Anxiety in a Teen
Farley, C. D., & Twohig, M. P. (2024) · Clinical Case Studies · doi:10.1177/15346501231217745 · Cited by 1
Dethier, V., & Philippot, P. (2017) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2017.03.013 · Cited by 1
Siegel, P., & Peterson, B. S. (2025) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14037 · Cited by 2
Anxiety and Fear-Related Disorders: Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Rosellini, A. J., & Brown, T. A. (2024) · Tasman’s Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-51366-5_74 · Cited by 1
Gruner, N. G., Cullen, J. M., Crosby, J. M., DeCross, S. N., Mathes, B., Garner, L., Gironda, C., Hu, Y., Krompinger, J. W., Elias, J. A., et al. (2024) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/jcp-2022-0033
The Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Collins, L. M., Bragdon, L. B., & Coles, M. E. (2018) · Evidence‐Based Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/9781119462996.ch6 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J.
- Affiliations
- Temple University (US)
- ORCID
- Foa, Edna B.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1986-01
- Volume
- 99
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 20-35
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2152676810
- Cited by
- 5,396
- References
- 117
- Citations by year
- 2026: 160 · 2025: 205 · 2024: 197 · 2023: 189 · 2022: 256 · 2021: 208 · 2020: 310 · 2019: 261 · 2018: 245 · 2017: 194 · 2016: 207 · 2015: 245 · 2014: 226 · 2013: 205 · 2012: 195
- FWCI
- 34.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-31634)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- fear, emotional processing, anxiety, memory structure, exposure therapy, habituation, physiological activation, mental representation, treatment failure, cognitive defense, autonomic arousal, mood states, psychopathology
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Behavior Therapy, Desensitization, Psychologic, Emotions, Fear, Humans, Mental Recall, Set, Psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
