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Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Abstract
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
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“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is universally adaptive to be viewed as good and worthy of high regard in one's culture”
From Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Members of collectivist cultures may thus be less motivated to protect self-integrity because their culture places less emphasis on esteeming the self (Heine et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
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On the Panculturality of Self-enhancement and Self-protection Motivation
Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L., & Cai, H. (2015) · Advances in motivation science · doi:10.1016/bs.adms.2015.04.002 · Cited by 150
Exaggerating Current and Past Performance: Motivated Self-Enhancement Versus Reconstructive Memory
Gramzow, R. H., & Willard, G. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206288600 · Cited by 138
Sheldon, K. M., & Hoon, T. H. (2006) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-006-9031-4 · Cited by 145
Acculturation and parental attachment in Asian-American adolescents’ alcohol use
Hahm, H. C., Lahiff, M., & Guterman, N. B. (2003) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/s1054-139x(03)00058-2 · Cited by 138
“Also response bias related to cultural issues may have been present, because a set of psychological processes is shaped by culturally significant narratives and culture-specific socialization patterns [12].”
BackgroundInfluentialCultural predictors of self-esteem: A study of Chinese American female and male young adults.
Tsai, J. L., Ying, Y., & Lee, P. A. (2001) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.7.3.284 · Cited by 137
Defensive pride and consensus: strength in imaginary numbers.
McGregor, I., Nail, P. R., Marigold, D. C., & Kang, S. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.978 · Cited by 137
“Finally, acceptable defenses may be culturally shaped, with exaggerated pride being prevalent in cultures that encourage proud individualism (Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton, 1985; Heine et al., 1999) and exaggerated selfcriticism being prevalent in cultures that encourage selfimprovement (Kang, 2003).”
BackgroundInterjudge Agreement, Self-Enhancement, and Liking: Cross-Cultural Divergences
Heine, S. J., & Renshaw, K. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202288002 · Cited by 136
“, Kiuchi, 1996; Yamaguchi, 1994) and increases our confidence that self-enhancement is associated with autonomy and independence (Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationBeike, D. R., Lampinen, J. M., & Behrend, D. A. (2004) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203337974 · Cited by 136
On Traits, Situations, and Their Integration: A Developmental Perspective
Roberts, B. W., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_5 · Cited by 134
Chang, E. C., Asakawa, K., & Sanna, L. J. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.3.476 · Cited by 140
Adolescent Self-Esteem in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Farruggia, S. P., Chen, C., Greenberger, E., Dmitrieva, J., & Macek, P. (2004) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022104270114 · Cited by 133
“Based on previous research (Heine et al., 1999), we also expected that the mean level of self-esteem would be lower for adolescents from the two collectivist societies (China and Korea) than for adolescents in the United States and Czech Republic.”
BackgroundTwo faces of interdependence: Harmony seeking and rejection avoidance
Hashimoto, H., & Yamagishi, T. (2013) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.12022 · Cited by 138
Cultural differences in hedonic emotion regulation after a negative event.
Miyamoto, Y., Ma, X., & Petermann, A. G. (2014) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0036257 · Cited by 148
“Although Asians tend to have lower self-esteem than European Americans (Heine et al., 1999), the present results suggest that cultural differences in selfefficacy do not explain cultural differences in hedonic emotion regulation.”
Through two lenses: A cultural–developmental approach to moral psychology
Jensen, L. A. (2008) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.11.001 · Cited by 138
Cultural mediators of self-reported social anxiety
Hong, J. J., & Woody, S. R. (2007) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.01.011 · Cited by 131
Language, Meaning, and Social Cognition
Holtgraves, T., & Kashima, Y. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868307309605 · Cited by 131
“An example of this can be seen in the classic study conducted by Higgins and Rholes (1978). They had participants describe a target person whose portrait was evaluatively ambiguous (e.”
MethodEmotion perception across cultures: the role of cognitive mechanisms
Engelmann, J. B., & Pogosyan, M. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00118 · Cited by 132
“We are hopeful that future research in cultural neuroscience will identify the neurobiological mechanisms responsible for culturespecific attentional biases evident during face perception.”
BackgroundLu, L., & Gilmour, R. (2006) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-839x.2006.00183.x · Cited by 131
“In contrast to the prevalence of self-enhancement among North Americans, East Asians (Japanese for instance) frequently exhibit a tendency of self-criticism and selfeffacement (Heine et al., 1999; Kitayama & Markus, 2000).”
BackgroundConsistent Belief in a Good True Self in Misanthropes and Three Interdependent Cultures
Freitas, J. D., Sarkissian, H., Newman, G. E., Grossmann, I., Brigard, F. D., Luco, A. C., & Knobe, J. (2017) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12505 · Cited by 125
“Just as differences in social orientation have been used to generate many hypotheses about what psychological factors may differ among cultures (e.g., Grossmann & Kross, 2010; Hamamura, Meijer, Heine, Kamaya, & Hori, 2009; Heine et al., 1999; Kanagawa et al., 2001; Maddux et al., 2010; Rozin, Lowery, Imada, & Haidt, 1…”
BackgroundWhy Did They “Choose” to Stay?
Stephens, N. K., Hamedani, M. G., Markus, H. R., Bergsieker, H. B., & Eloul, L. (2009) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02386.x · Cited by 128
Self-citationCameron, J. J., & Granger, S. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868318756532 · Cited by 165
Heine, S. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.531 · Cited by 128
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-794
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2076124583
- Cited by
- 2,247
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 113
- FWCI
- 51.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-criticism, cross-cultural generalizability, Japanese culture, self-construal, North American culture, self-view
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Characteristics, Humans, Japan, Motivation, North America, Self Concept
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