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Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Abstract
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
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“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is universally adaptive to be viewed as good and worthy of high regard in one's culture”
From Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Members of collectivist cultures may thus be less motivated to protect self-integrity because their culture places less emphasis on esteeming the self (Heine et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
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Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., & Lehman, D. R. (2001) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022101032004004 · Cited by 228
“In addition to the growing body of evidence indicating that Japanese, in comparison to North Americans, tend to be more self-critical (Heine & Lehman, 1999; Heine et al., 1999; Kitayama et al., 1997; Markus & Kitayama, 1991), exhibit fewer and weaker self-enhancing biases (Heine & Lehman, 1995, 1997a; Kashima & Triand…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationVicarious dissonance: Attitude change from the inconsistency of others.
Norton, M. I., Monin, B., Cooper, J., & Hogg, M. A. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.1.47 · Cited by 228
Self-Esteem as Folk Theory: A Comparison of European American and Taiwanese Mothers' Beliefs
Miller, P. J., Wang, S., Sandel, T. L., & Cho, G. E. (2002) · Parenting · doi:10.1207/s15327922par0203_02 · Cited by 206
“Taken together, these studies suggest that parental folk theories, and their associated practices, may be one important means by which the need for positive self-regard, so common among Americans (Heine et al., 1999), is reproduced.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe jury and abjury of my peers: The self in face and dignity cultures.
Kim, Y.-H., Cohen, D., & Au, W.-T. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017936 · Cited by 206
Anxious uncertainty and reactive approach motivation (RAM).
McGregor, I., Nash, K. A., Mann, N. H., & Phills, C. E. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019701 · Cited by 213
Aaker, J., & Schmitt, B. (2001) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022101032005003 · Cited by 202
Cultural Psychology: Beyond East and West
Kitayama, S., & Salvador, C. E. (2023) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-021723-063333 · Cited by 249
Self-citationThe effect of culture on perception and cognition: A conceptual framework
Kastanakis, M. N., & Voyer, B. G. (2013) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.03.028 · Cited by 237
Miyamoto, Y., Yoo, J., Levine, C. S., Park, J., Boylan, J. M., Sims, T. L., Markus, H. R., Kitayama, S., Kawakami, N., Karasawa, M., et al. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000133 · Cited by 214
Self-citationMesquita, B., & Karasawa, M. (2002) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/0269993014000176 · Cited by 221
“For example, self-esteem was found to be a concern for both Japanese and Americans, but more so for Americans (Heine et al., 1999; Kitayama et al., 1997).”
BackgroundMa, Y., & Han, S. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance · doi:10.1037/a0015797 · Cited by 197
Kitayama, S., King, A. P. J., Yoon, C., Tompson, S., Huff, S. T., & Liberzon, I. (2014) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797614528338 · Cited by 201
Self-citationWhy is Self-Enhancement Low in Certain Collectivist Cultures?
Kurman, J. (2003) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022103256474 · Cited by 194
“It has been suggested that the self-enhancement motive, which is typically found in Western cultures that emphasize self-uniqueness and self-success, is not universal and that its incidence in East Asian cultures is very low or even absent (Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundBig Five Traits Related to Short-Term Mating: From Personality to Promiscuity across 46 Nations
Schmitt, D. P., & Shackelford, T. K. (2008) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470490800600204 · Cited by 193
Managers' Cultural Background and Disclosure Attributes
Brochet, F., Miller, G. S., Naranjo, P., & Yu, G. (2018) · The Accounting Review · doi:10.2308/accr-52290 · Cited by 175
Markus, H. R., Uchida, Y., Caruso, H. M., Townsend, S. S. M., & Kitayama, S. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01672.x · Cited by 192
Self-citationVaus, J. D., Hornsey, M. J., Kuppens, P., & Bastian, B. B. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868317736222 · Cited by 198
A Model of Subjective Well-Being Homeostasis: The Role of Personality
Cummins, R. A., Gullone, E., & Lau, A. L. D. (2002) · Social indicators research series · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-0271-4_3 · Cited by 198
Adolescent Self-esteem: Differences by Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Age
Bachman, J. G., O’Malley, P. M., Freedman-Doan, P., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Donnellan, M. B. (2010) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298861003794538 · Cited by 191
“Some authors have suggested that ‘‘selfesteem, as it is conventionally researched and understood, may be, in significant ways, a North American phenomenon’’ (Heine et al., 1999, p. 768; but see Sedikides, Gaertner, & Toguchi, 2003; Sedikides, Gaertner, & Vevea, 2007).”
BackgroundSchooler, C., Mulatu, M. S., & Oates, G. L. S. C. (2004) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/385430 · Cited by 192
“A series of reviews of relevant psychological research (Heine et al. 1999; Markus and Kitayama 1991; Nisbett et al. 2001; but see also Oyserman, Coon, and Kemmelmeier 2002) provide convincing evidence that the psychological processes, including orientations toward themselves and others, of members…”
BackgroundMiller, J. G. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.97 · Cited by 191
Loewe, N., Bagherzadeh, M., Araya-Castillo, L., Thieme, C., & Batista‐Foguet, J. M. (2013) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-013-0408-6 · Cited by 210
“In these cultures past personal accomplishments are not evaluated as positively as in the U.S. (Heine et al. 1999; Markus and Kitayama 1991) because the concept of life satisfaction is based primarily on external conditions and current status rather than past accomplishments.”
BackgroundTrzesniewski, K. H., Donnellan, M. B., & Robins, R. W. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02065.x · Cited by 183
Lay perspectives on the social and psychological functions of heroes
Kinsella, E. L., Ritchie, T. D., & Igou, E. R. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00130 · Cited by 211
Metadata
- Authors
- Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-794
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2076124583
- Cited by
- 2,247
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 113
- FWCI
- 51.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-criticism, cross-cultural generalizability, Japanese culture, self-construal, North American culture, self-view
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Characteristics, Humans, Japan, Motivation, North America, Self Concept
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